el-Its hatred of a load, and mode of expressing its disapprobation-Riding a Camel through the streets-A narrow escape-Ceremony of weaning a young Camel-The Camel's favourite food-Structure

general character

ave an unpleasant faculty of treasuring up an injury until they can find a time of repaying it. Signor Pierotti gives a curious example of this trait of character. As he was going to the Jordan, he found a dead Camel lying on the roadside,

grasping his throat in its powerful jaws, and shaking him to death. The whole scene passed so rapidly, that before the other drivers could come to the man's assistance he was han

by Mr. Palgrave, in his "Ce

hows an unexpected degree of forethoughted malice, united meanwhile with all the cold stupidity of his usual character. One

o. As the animal loitered or turned out of the way, its conductor struck it repeatedly, and harder than it seems to have thought he had

was in sight, and, finding the road clear of passers-by, made a step forward, seized the unlucky boy's head in its monstrous mouth, and, lifting him up in the air, flung him down again on the earth, with the upper part of his head completely torn off, and his brains scattered on t

te, to those who partake of them over-largely, the moral or immoral qualities of the animal to which they belonged. I do not feel myself capable of pronouncing an opinion on so intricate a question, but thus much I can say, that the camel and

an intellectual animal; but it is very possible that its stupidity may in a great measure be owing to the fact that no one has tried to cultivate its in

to crop some green thorn-bush, it will go on in the same direction, never thinking of turning back into the right road unless directed by its rider. Should the Camel stray, "it is a thousand to one that he will never find his way back to his accu

ing and groaning, and attempting to bite. So habitual is this conduct that if a kneeling Camel be only approached, and a stone as larg

r been known in the memory of man. There are wild oxen, wild goats, wild sheep, wild horses, and wild asses, but there is no spot on the face of the earth where the Camel is found except as the servant of man. Thro

in front of it to press himself closely to the wall, and to make way for the enormous beast as it plods along. The driver or rider generally gives notice by continually calling to the pedestrians to ge

ass under them, but are so low that they leave no room for a rider. The natives, who are accustomed to this style of architecture, are always ready for an arc

th one of my companions behind, and was therefore in a happy state of ignorance as to what was immediately before me, when the shouting and running together of the people in the street on either side made me turn my h

e, my shirt-studs actually scraping along against the stonework. On emerging again into the open street, I could hardly realize my escape, for if

s allowed to follow its mother for a whole year in perfect liberty. Towards the expiration of that time the young animal is gradually stinted in its supply of milk, and forced to browse for its nourishment. On the anniversary of its birth, the young Deloul is turned with its head towards Canopus, and its ears solemnly boxed, its master saying at the same time, "Henceforth drinkest thou no drop of milk." For this reason the newly-wean

ccessive days, passing over some eight hundred miles of ground, without receiving any food except that which they gathered for themselves by the way. The favourite food of the Camel is a shrub called the ghada, growing to six feet or so in height, and forming a feathery tuft of inn

e world; and though the thorns are an inch or two in length, very strong, and as sharp as

t be set to them they blaze up in a moment, with a sharp cracking sound and a roar of flame, and in a moment or two are nothing but a heap of light ashes. No wonder was it that when Moses saw the thorn-bush burning without being consumed he was struc

power of extracting nutriment from every sort of vegetable substance. It has been fed on charc

was amusing to see his preparations for their evening's entertainment. The table-cloth, a circular piece of leather, was duly spread on the ground; on this he poured the quantity of dourrah destined for their meal, and calling his camels, they came and took each its place at the feast. It is quaint to

the Camel the desert would be as impassable as the sea without ships. No water being found for several days' journey together, the animal is able to carry within itself a supply of water which will last it for several days, and, as no gree

ny animal, and it is necessary that the Camel should be furnished with a foot that cannot be split by heat like the hoof of a horse, that is

oft that the tread of the huge animal is as noiseless as that of a cat, and, owing to the division of the toes, it spreads as the weight comes upon it

ts hard foot out of the holes into which they sink. It is popularly thought that hills are impracticable to the Camel; but it is able to climb even rocky ground from which a horse would recoil. Mr. Marsh, an American traveller, was much

set on the ground at a considerable distance from each other. On dry ground this structure increases the stability of the animal by increasing its base; but on wet ground the effect is singularly unpleasant. The soft, padded feet have no hold, and slip sideways at

o exceptional that the generality of Camels never see it in their lives. Camels do not object to mud an inch or two deep, provided that

nd in such a case they are sure to be drowned. When swimming is a necessity, the head is generally tied to the stern of a boat, or guided by the driver swimming in front, while another often clings to the tail, so as to depress the rump

some other us

is employed in making brushes for painters; but in its own land the hair plays a really important part. At the proper season it is removed from the an

ven mantles for rainy or cold weather are made of Camel's hair, and it was in a dress of this coarse and rough material that St. John the Baptist was clad. The best part of the Camel's hair is that which grows in tufts on the back and about the hump, the fibre being much longer t

of leather. It is simply tanned by being p

rom it, the leather being thicker and less porous than that of the goat, and therefore wasting les

es in case of bruises or rheumatic pains, and is even applied with some success to simple fractures. It is largely employed for fuel, and the desert couriers use nothing else, their Camels being furnished with a net, so that no

he flat roof. This must be waterproof in order to withstand the wet of the rainy season, and no material answers the purpose so well as that which has been mentioned. So strangely hard and firm is this composition, that s

overbial saying of our Lord, "A rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of heaven. Again I say unto you, It is easie

o desired to be one of the disciples, but clung too tightly to his wealth to accept the only conditions on which he could be received. His possessions were a snare to him, as was proved by his refusal to part w

lt (δυσκ?λω?) for him to do so. It is difficult for a man to use his money for the service of God, the only purpose for which it was given him, and the difficulty increases in proportion to its amount. But wealth in itself is no more a bar to heaven than intellect, health, strength, or any other gift, an

THROUGH A "N

eye of a needle, than for a rich man to en

l and very low apertures called metaphorically "needle's-eyes," just as we talk of certain windows as "bull's-eyes." These entrances are too narrow for a Camel to pass through them in the ordinary manner, or even if loaded. When a laden Camel has to pass through one of these entrances, it kneels d

remarkable that an accidental misprint has robbed this passage of its true force. The real translation is: "which strain out the gnat, and swallow the camel." The Greek word is διυλ?ζω, which signifies to fil

CTRIAN

a mixed breed-Its power of enduring cold-Used chiefly as a beast of draught-Unfitness for the plo

ir history. This species was employed by the Assyrians, as we find by the sculptures upon the ruins, and if in no other way the

actrian and Arabian species are so similar that none but a very skilful anatomist can distinguish between them, and several learned zoologists have expressed an opinion, in w

rpass the mule in the sureness of its tread. This quality is probably occasioned by the peculiar structure of the foot, which has an elongated toe projecting beyond the soft pad, and forming a sort of claw. In

these animals in winter time for a distance of three hundred and sixty miles over the snowy tops of the Indian Caucasus; and though the campaign lasted for seve

t of night converts it into a thin plate of ice. When the Camel walks upon this semi-frozen snow, its feet plunge into the soft sub

male Bactrian and a female Arabian Camel. If the parentage be reversed

een quietly feeding when the thermometer has reached a temperature several degrees below zero. Sometimes, when the cold is more than usually sharp, the owners sew a thick cloth round

t is not used for the plough, because it has an uncertain and jerking mode of pulling, and d

IAN C

iot of camels.

by means of a pole which passes over their necks. Oxen were harnessed in a similar manner. It was probably one of these cars or chariots that was mentioned by Isaiah in his prophecy respecting Assyria:-"And he saw a chariot w

of thirty miles. It is much slower than the Arabian Camel, seldom going at more than two and a half miles per hour. If, however, the vehicle to which a pair of Bactrians are harnessed were well made, the wheels truly circular, and the axles kept greased so as to diminish the friction, there is

iness for its annual renewal, and the weight of the entire crop of hair ought to be about ten pounds. The skin is not much valued, and is seldom used for any purpose except for making ropes, straps, and thongs

its ears. When any one makes a request that is likely to be refused, they quote the instance of the Camel, who, it seems, was dissatisfied wit

HO

stics of the Horse-Courage and endurance of the Horse-Hardness of its unshod hoofs-Love of the Arab for his Horse-Difficulty of purchasing the animal-The Horse prohibited to the

imal. The chief distinction of the Horse seemed to lie in its use for riding or driving, the larger and heavier animals being naturally required for drawing the weighty springless chariots. The chari

ned, there are few which do not treat of it as an adjunct of war,

e way, that the first mention of the Horse in the Scriptures alludes to it as an Egyptian animal. During the terrible famine which Joseph had foretold, the Egyptians and the inhabitants of neighbouring countries were unable to find food for themselves or fodder for their cattle

ts, which enable it to adapt itself to every movement of the rider, whose intentions it seems to divine by a sort of instinct, and who guides it not so much by the bridle as by the pressure of the knees and the voice. Examples of a similar mode of guidance may be see

at any other animal would be either killed on the spot or ruined for life. When a young mare is tried for the first time, her owner rides her for some fifty or sixty miles at full speed, al

rriage than a companion to man. The Arab, however, lives with his horse, and finds in it the docility and intelligence which we are accustomed to associate with the dog rather than the Horse. It will follow him about and come at his call. It will stand for any length of time and await it

HO

smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of

is true element, and fully deserves the splendid eulogium in the Book of Job (xxxix.

as a grasshopper? the glor

rejoiceth in his strength: he

not affrighted; neither tu

ainst him, the glitteri

ess and rage: neither believeth he

d he smelleth the battle afar off, the t

repented him of his wickedness, saying, What have I done? Every one turned to his course, as the horse rusheth into the battle." (Jer. viii. 6.) Even in

Horse treads with unbroken hoof. In such a climate, indeed, an iron shoe would be worse than useless, as it would only scorch the hoof by day, and in consequence of

heir bows bent, their horses' hoofs shall be counted like flint, and their wheels like a whirlwind." Again, in Micah iv. 13: "Arise and thresh, O daughter of Zion: for I will make thine horn iron, and I will make thy hoofs brass: and tho

: "Then were the horse-hoofs broken by the means of the prancings, the prancings of their mighty ones." It is easy now to see that these words infer a scornful a

and even at the present day the Arab warrior esteems above all things a Horse of the purest breed, and

h in point of fact are almost prohibitory. Signor Pierotti, whose long residence in Palestine has given him a deep insight into the character of the people, speaks in the most glo

first reply is, 'It is yours, and belongs to you, I am your servant;' because, perhaps, he does not think that the question is asked with any real design of purchasing; when the demand is repeated, he either makes no answer or puts the question by; at the third demand he generally responds rudely with a

it is very doubtful whether he or his parents will allow her to leave the

or other may arise, or perhaps the mare may be stolen from her new master. He must also obtain an unquestionable warranty that she is fit for breeding purposes, and that no other has a prior claim to any part of her body. This last precaution may seem rather strange, but it arises from the following custom. It sometimes happens that, when a Bedawy is great

arises who demands to be paid the value of his part; and, if the purchaser refuse to comply, he may find himself in a very unpleasant situation, without any possibility of obtaining help from the local government. Whoever sells his mare entirely, without reserving to himself one or two parts, must be on good terms with the confederate chiefs in the neigh

the purest blood; those of inferior race are o

er prophesying that the Israelites, when they had settled themselves in the Promised Land, would want a king, the inspired writer next ordains that the new king must be chosen by Divine command, and must belong to one of the twelve tribes. He

ypt being the chief source from which these animals were obtained. And, judging from the monuments to which reference has been made,

e latter supplied himself largely from Egypt, disregarding as utterly the interdict aga

riots; yet he did not controvert the law by multiplying to himself Horses, or even by importing them from Egypt; and when he had an opportunity of adding to his army an enormous force of chariots, he only employed as many as he thought wer

iv. 26 of the enormous establishment which he kept up both for chariots and cavalry. Besides those which were given to him as tribute, he purchased both chariots

better weapons than bows and spears. The slingers themselves could make little impression on the chariots; and even if the driver, or the warrio

to pursue the Israelites; and in a subsequent part of the same chapter we find that six hundred of the Egyptian chariot force accomp

he would be conspicuous, and taking flight on foot; and, after his death, his mother is represented as awaiting his arri

rts of the land, no mention of the chariot is made; but when the battles had to be fought on level ground, the enemy brought the dreaded chariots to bea

f his nine hundred chariots of iron Jabin "mightily oppressed the children of Israel" for twenty years. It has been well suggested that the possession of the war chariot gave rise to the saying of Benhadad's co

d besieged Samaria, and had nearly reduced it by starvation, the fancied sound of a host of chariots and Horses that they heard in

were employed against the Jews by Antiochus, who had "footmen an hundred and ten thousand, and horsemen five thousand and three hundred, and elephants two and twenty, and three hundred chari

he spear in sunder; He burneth the chariot in the fire" (Ps. xlvi. 9). Again: "At Thy rebuke, O God of Jacob, both the chariot and horse are cast into a dead sleep" (Ps. lxxvi. 6). And: "Some trust in chariots, and some in horses: but we will remember the name of the Lord our God" (Ps. xx. 7). Now, the force of these passages cannot be properly appreciated unless we realiz

of the chariots." Also, Jer. xlvii. 3: "At the noise of the stamping of the hoofs of his strong horses, at the rushing of his chariots, and at the rumbling of his wheels, the fathe

l they leap, like the noise of a flame of fire that devou

y place" (Ps. lxviii. 17). A similar image is employed in Ps. civ. 3: "Who maketh the clouds His chariot: who walketh upon the wings of the wind." In connexion with these passages, we cannot but call to mind that w

s that wonderful event, we may mention one which occurs in the splendid prayer of Habakkuk (iii. 8): "Was the Lord displeased against the riv

evident from Gen. xli. 43, in which we are told that after Pharaoh had taken Joseph out of prison and raised him to be next in rank to himself, the king caused him to ride in the second chariot which he h

ch chariots, but it is evident that he used them for purposes of state, and as appendages of his regal rank. Chariots or carriages were, however, afterwards employed by the Israelites as freely as by the Egyptians, from whom they were originally procured; and accordingly w

ng very slightly in shape, the principle of the chariot was the same; and it strikes us with some surprise that the Assyrians, the Egyptians, and the Jews, the three wealthiest and most powerful nations of t

they do not seem to have had the sloping floor of the Greek or Roman chariot. They had no springs, but, in order to render the jolting of the carriage less disagreeable,

overed with gold and silver, and adorned with figures of lions and other animals. Should the chariot be intended for two persons, two bow-cases wer

irth. On their heads were generally fixed ornaments, such as tufts of feathers, and similar decorations, and tassels hung to the harness served to drive away the flies. Round the neck of each Horse passed a strap, to the end of whi

owner or occupant could fight with both his hands at liberty. In case he drove his own Horse, the reins passed round his waist, and the whip was f

ot in war; we have now the Horse a

lry during their long sojourn in Egypt, and in the course of their war of conquest had often suffered defeat from the horsemen of the enemy. But we do not find any m

has a similar passage in chap. l. 42, couched in almost precisely the same words. And in chap. xlvi. 4, there is a further reference to the cavalry, which is specially valuable as mentioning the weapons used by them. The first call of the prophet is to the infantry: "Order ye the buckler and shield, and draw near to battle" (verse 3); and then follows the c

r, and Assyria of the latter. Both drawings have been executed with the greatest care in details, every one of which, even to the harness of the Horses, t

take the war-c

ns the war-chariots of Egypt, and because, after the Israelites had adopted chariots as an acknowledged part of

the foreground is the chariot of the general, driven at headlong speed, the Horses at full gallop, and the springless chariot leaping off the ground as the Horses bound along. The royal rank of the general in question is shown b

N WAR-C

ye chariots; and let the mighty

tling of the wheels, and of the prancing horse

hariots ... shall th

harness of the Horses is especially worthy of notice, as showing how the ancients knew, better than the moderns, that to cover a Horse with a complicated apparatus of straps and metal only

the ground are lying the bodies of some slain enemies, and the Horses are snorting and shaking their heads, significative of their unwillingness to trample on a human being. By the side of the dead man are his shie

nemies before them. In the distance are seen the clouds of dust whirled into the air by the hoofs and wheels, and circling in clouds by the eddies caused by the fierce rush of the vehicles, thus illustrating the passage in Jer. iv. 13: "Behold, he shall come up as clouds, and his chariots sh

aping off the ground, the archers bending their bows, and all imbued with the fierce ardour of battle, we have a scene of quiet grandeur, the Assyrian king mak

rn times, was the emblem of royalty. By his side is his charioteer, evidently a man of high rank, holding the reins in a business-like manner; and in front marches the shield-bearer. In one o

CHARIOT

city kings and princes sitting upon the thron

er, their heads being decorated with the curious successive plumes with which the Assyrian princes distinguished their c

rse the artist exaggerated the effect that he wanted to produce; but the very fact of the exaggeration shows the value that was set on a high and showy action in a Horse that was attached to a chariot of state. The old Assyrian sculptors knew the Horse well, an

n with war. There are few exceptions to this rule, and even the oft-quoted passage in Job, which goes deeper into the character of the Horse than any other portion of the Scriptures, only considers the Horse as an auxiliary in battle. We miss the

E

ural Ass-Saddling the Ass-The Ass used in agriculture-The Ass's millstone-The water-wheel and the plough-Reminiscences of the Ass in the Scriptural narrative-

the Domesticated and the Wild Ass. As the former is th

has ceased to be regularly used for the purposes of the saddle, and is only casually employed by holiday-makers and the like. Some persons certainly ride it habitually, but they almost invariably belong to the lower orders, and are content t

considered most appropriate for the purpose. For example, we find that Abraham, an exceptionally wealthy man, and a chief of high position, made use of the Ass for the saddle.

at riding upon the Ass is actually

a Gileadite, and judged I

lead." So here we have the curious fact, that the sacred historian thinks it worth while to mention that great men, the sons of the chief man of Israel, e

son of Hillel, a Pira

s according to some translators) "that rode on threesco

s, the Scriptures, which are books essentially Oriental in all their allusions and tone of thought, many persons have entirely perverted the sense of one very familiar passage, the prophecy of Zechariah concerning the future Me

nderstood by the people. He rode upon an Ass as any prince or ruler would have done who was engaged on a peaceful journey, the horse being reserved for war purposes. He rode on the Ass, and not on the horse, because He was the Prince of Peace and not of war, as indeed is shown very clearly in the context. For, after writing the

come as the Jews expected-despite so many prophecies-their Messiah to come, as a great king and conqueror, He might have ridden the war-horse, and been surrounded with countless legion

ting Him as the Son of David, coming in the name of the Highest, and greeting Him with the cry of "Hosanna!" ("Save us now,"

at cometh in the

, it was customary for the people to assemble with branches of palms and willows in their hands, and for one of the priests to recite the Great Hallel, i.e. Ps. cxiii. and cxviii. At certain intervals, the people responded with the cry of "Hosanna!" waving at t

children on the occasion of the triumphal entry. By degrees, the name of Hosanna was transferred to

ccompanied with Hosannas, and that those who used them in honour of Him who

e in 2 Kings ix. 13. When Elisha sent the young prophet to call Jehu from among the council, and to anoint him King of Israel, the act of anointing was performed in a private chamber. Jehu, scarcely realizing the import of the act, seemed to think it a trick played upon him by some of his companions, the c

ye that sit in judgment, and walk by the way." Such Asses are still in use for similar purposes, and are bred expressly for the use of persons of rank. They are l

r, in addition to the land which he had previously given her as a dowry. Later in the Scriptural history we read that Abigail, the wife of the wealthy churl Nabal, rode to meet David on an Ass, when she went to deprecate hi

illustrious of the Israelites, a man of whom we read as being almost the equal of Joshua, one of the illustrious two who were included in the special exemption from the punishment of rebellion. Moreover, Caleb was a man of enormous

al, that his "possessions were in Carmel, and the man was very great, and he had three thousand sheep, and a thousand goats." Yet his wife, who undoubtedly ruled her household as a housew

which the life of her only child was involved, was a woman of great wealth (2 Kings iv. 8),

he East was held in comparatively high estimation, being used for the

ch he possesses, and which are of a much higher order than is generally imagined. It is rather remarkable, that when we wish to speak slightingly of intellec

ce, and of the Ass with contemptuous pity, not knowing that, of the two animals, the Ass is by far the superior in point of intellect. It has been well remarked by a keen observer of nature, th

AN A

or the ass.

e idle boys who generally frequent such places, and who try to ride every beast that is within their reach. It seems to divine at once the

ctionate. Stripes and kicks it resents, and sets itself distinctly against them; and, being no

writes Mr. Lowth, in his "Wanderer in Arabia," "the crushed and grief-stricken, is so no more in Egypt: the battered drudge has become the willing servant. Is that active little fellow, who, with race-horse coat and fu

s gay as a crimson saddle and a bridle of light chains and red leather can make

climate becomes colder. Whether it might equal the horse in its endurance of cold provided that it were as carefully treated, is perhaps a doubtful point; b

ing terms of the animal. He states that he formed a very high opinion of the Ass while he was in Egypt, not only from its spirited aspect and its speed, but because it was employed even by the Viceroy and th

which adorn it in other parts of the East-namely, it is useful for riding and for carrying burdens; it is sensible of kindness, and shows gratitude; it is very steady, and is larger, s

ul of its extraction, except when undeservedly beaten by its masters, who, however, are not so much to be blamed, because, ha

him a corner at their fireside, and in cold weather sleep with him for more warmth. In Palestine, all the rich men, whether monarchs or chiefs of villages, possess a number of asses, keeping them with their fl

powers of long-continued travel, its usual pace being a sort of easy canter. On rough ground, or up an ascent, it is said even to ga

ling the Ass" requires

saddle itself is a very thick pad of straw, covered with carpet, and flat at the top, instead of being rounded as is the case with our saddles. The pommel is very high, and when the rider is seated on it, he is perched high above t

, tassels, shells, and other ornaments. An example of the headstall wor

y. Owing to the unchanging character of the East, there is no doubt that the "riders on asses" of the Scriptures rode exactly after the mode which is ad

nkeys with their drivers. A friend of mine who was attended by such a cavalcade for two hours, was obliged to yield at last, and made no second attempt. When we first appeared in the gateway of an hotel, equipped for an excursion, the rush of men and animals was so great that we were forced to retreat until our servant and the po

and in hanging bits of jingling brass to the bridles. They keep their donkeys close shorn, and frequently beautify them by painting them various colours. The first animal I rode had legs barred like a zebra's, and my friend's rejoiced in purple flanks and a yellow belly. The

driver shouts behind, and you are dashed at full speed into a confusion of other donkeys, camels, horses, carts, water-carriers, and footmen. In vain you cry out 'Bess' (enough), 'Piacco,' and other desperate adjurations; the driver's only reply is: 'Let the bridle hang loose!' You dodge your head under a

llision; but, by a series of the most remarkable dodges, he generally carried you through in safety. The cries of the driver running behind gave me no little amusement. 'The hawadji comes! Take care on the right hand! Take care on the left hand!

e Scriptures to treading down the enemies in the streets, and to

rter projecting at either side of the animal's head. The North American Indians carry the poles of their huts, or wigwams, in precisely the same way, tying them on either side of their horses, and making them into rude sledges, upon which are fastened the skins that form the walls of their huts. The same system of carriage is also found among

sow beside all waters, that send forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass" (Isa. xxxii. 20). Sowing beside the waters is a custom that s

sent day identical with those which were used in the old Scriptural times, they were yoked to the machine in rather an ingenious manner. The machine consists of an upright pivot, and to it is attached the horizontal pole to which the ox or Ass is harnessed. A machine exactly s

ecting end, being drawn forward and tied to the bridle of the animal, keeps up a continual pull, and makes the blinded animal believe that it is being drawn forward by the hand of a driver. So

g an ox and an Ass together is often disregarded. The practice, however, is not a judicious one, as the slow and heavy ox does not act well with the lighter

ized Version, the passage is rendered thus: "But whoso shall offend one of these little ones which believe in Me, it

to] one of these little ones that believe in Me, it were better for him that an ass's millstone were hung about his neck, and he were sunk in the depth of the sea." The chief force of this saying lies in the word which is

before he returns it to its owner. Each time that the animal is caught on forbidden grounds it receives a fresh clip of the ear. By looking at the ears of an Ass, therefore, any one can tell whether it has ever been a straggler; and if so, he knows the number of times that it has stra

or similar offences, the greater number would be marked as soon as they begin to

the olden time seemed to have esteemed the Ass as highly as the camel, the ox, the sheep, or the goat. Abraham, for example, is described as being a rich man, and possessing "sheep, and oxen, an

1,000], and five hundred she-asses, and a very great household; so that this man was the greatest of all the men of the east" (Job i. 3). And a

ess, as he fed the asses of Zibeon his father." The charge of the Asses was, as the reader must see, a post of sufficient honour and importance to be trusted to the son of the owner. A similar case is recorded in the well-known i

carefully given. After mentioning that the people and the army were divided into "courses," and that certain officers were set over each course, the sacred historian proceeds to state that one officer was appointed as overseer of the treasury, another of the granaries, another of the fi

scription of the siege of Samaria by Benhadad. The sacred historian describes with painful fidelity the horrors of the siege, and of the dreadful extremity to which the people were reduced. No circumstance could be more terrible than the quarre

a doubtful point, but, in all probability, the milk was con

ss, they are innumerable, and I sh

do so by Noah. Now when the Flood came, and overwhelmed the world, the devil, who was at that time wandering upon the earth, saw that he was about to be cut off from contact from ma

uch time over the obstinate animal, Noah at last lost patience, and struck the Ass sharply, crying at the same time to it, "Enter, thou devil!" Of course

r. This black cross is really believed by many persons to have been given to the animal in consequence of its connexion with our Lord. I need hardly tell the reader that it is the remnant of the strip

t Saviour in the manger, that it carried Him and His mother into Egypt and back again, and that it was used by the Lord himself and His disciples. Any one who ventures to hint that the

imal on which the Virgin Mary and infant Saviour rode. (I need scarcely mention that there is no mention in the Scriptures of the fact that the Holy Family rode upon an Ass; though such a mode of travel was certainly the one which

r to Moab, in the course of which there occurred that singular incident of the Ass speaking in human language (see Numb. xxii. 21, 35). The second is the well-known episode

WILD

Asia and Africa-Knowledge of the animal displayed by the sacred writers-How the Wild Ass is hunted-Excellenc

ished from the domesticated animal, and in all of them there is some refe

see the following passage: "Who hath sent out the wild ass (Pere) free? or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass (Arod)?" Now there are only two places in the whole Hebrew Scriptures in which the word Arod occurs, and there are many doubts wh

nd gives the word as "wild asses." It is thought by several scholars that the two words refer to two different species of Wild Ass. It may be so, but as the ancient writers had the loosest possible ideas regarding distinction of species, and as, moreover, it is very doubtful

distinct reddish tinge on the grey coat, which disappears in the winter, and the cross-streak is black. There are several kinds of Wild Ass known to science, all of which have different names. Some of o

for the other. It is an astonishingly swift animal, so that on the level ground even the best horse has scarcely a chance of overtaking it.

o discover some earth-mound or heap of sand from which it may act as sentinel and give the alarm in case of danger. It is a gregarious animal, always assembling in herds

or draw a vehicle. Attempts have been often made to domesticate the young that have been born in captivity, but with very sl

ing country, and, from the frequent references made to it in Scriptures, was well known to the ancient Jews. We will now l

ass free? or who hath loos

lderness, and the barren lands

f the city, neither regardet

is his pasture, and he searc

voidance of mankind, and its migration in search of pasture. Another allusion to the pasture-seeking habits of the animal is to be found in chapte

as wild asses in the desert, go they forth to their work; rising betimes for a prey: the wilderness yieldeth food for them and their children," or for the young, as the passage may be more literally rendered. The same migratory habit is also mentioned by the prophet Jere

WILD

he desert go they f

nst every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the presence of all his brethren." Now the real force of this passage is quite missed in the Authorized Version, the correct ren

ll not weary themselves; in her month they shall find her." The fondness of the Wild Ass for the desert is mentioned by the prophet Isaiah. Foretelling the desolation that was to come upon the land, he u

it. Men of the highest rank give whole days to the hunt of the Wild Ass, and vie with each other for the honour of inflicting the first wound on so fleet an animal.

as allowed by a Wild Ass to approach within a moderate distance, the animal evidently seeing that he was not

glimpse they had of it, was an antelope. I instantly put spurs to my horse, and with my attendants gave chase. After an unrelaxed gallop of three miles,

ove all other animals as an object of chase, I determined to approach as near to it as the very swift Arab I was on could carry me. But the single i

m. He then darted off again with the quickness of thought, capering, kicking, and sporting in his flight, as if he were not blown in the least, and the chase was his pastime. When

inded me of the striking portrait drawn by the author of the Book of Job. I was informed by the Mehnander, who had been in the desert when making a pilgrimage to the shrine of Ali, that the wild

other of these animals, and, pursuing it det

t is true that the Wild and the Domesticated Ass are exactly similar in appearance, and that an Asinus hemippus, or Wild Ass, looks so like an Asiatic Asinus vulgaris, or Domesticated Ass, that by the eye alone the two are hardly di

Spaniards, and live in herds, just as do the horses. They combine the habits of the Wild Ass with the disposition of the tame animal. They are as swift of foot as the Wild Ass of Syria o

nd plunge, and behave exactly like their wild relations of the Old World, giving their captors infinite trouble in avoiding the teeth and hoofs which they wield so skilfully. But, as soon as a load has onc

MU

-The Mule as a saddle-animal-Its use on occasions of state-The king's Mule-Mules brought from Babylon after the captivity-Obstinacy

t is remarkable that the animal is not mentioned at all until the time

mstance that the offspring of these two animals should be, for some purposes, far superior to either of the parents, a well-bred Mule having the lightness, surefootedness, and hardy endurance of t

mall, and comparatively valueless. At the present day, Mules are largely employed in Spain and the Spanish dependencies, and there are some breeds which are of v

is here rendered as Mules is "Yemim," a word which is not found elsewhere in the Hebrew Scriptures. The best Hebraists are agreed that, whatever interpretation may be put upon the word, it cannot possibly have the s

OF THE

d mule, which have no unde

revenge for the insult offered to Tamar: "And the servants of Absalom did unto Amnon as Absalom had commanded. Then all the king's sons arose, and every man gat him up upon his mule, and fled." I

servants of David. And Absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great oak, and his head

hat to ride upon the king's Mule was considered as equivalent to sitting upon the king's throne. See, for example, 1 Kings i. in which there are several passages illustrative of this curious fact. See first, ver. 33, in which David gives to Zadok the priest, Nathan the pr

coronation feast, heard the sound of the trumpets and the shouting in honour of Solomon, and on inquiring was told that Solomon had been crowned king by Zadok, recognised by Nathan, accepted by Benaiah, and had ridden on the king's Mule. These tidings alarmed him, and caused

vidently thought that the prohibition did not extend to the use of these animals, and from the time of David we find that they were very largely employed both for the saddle and as beasts of burden. In all probability, the Mules were imported from Egypt and other countries, and that

els of gold, and garments, and armour, and spices, horses, and mules

, out of all nations, upon horses, and in chariots, and in litters, and upon mules, and upon swift beasts, to My holy mountain Jerusalem." Another allusion to the Mule as one of the recognised do

hat had destroyed all the pasturage. "Ahab said unto Obadiah, Go into the land, unto all fountains of water, and un

per of Jehovah, and to have saved a hundred prophets during Jezebel's persecution, he retained his position, either because no one dared to inform against him, or because he was too powerful to be attacked. Yet to Obadia

om their Babylonish captivity, the sacred chronicler proceeds to remark that "their horses were seven hundred thirty and six; their mules, two hundred forty and fiv

nimal. There is only one passage which can be thought even to bear upon such a subject, and that is the familiar sentence from Ps. xxxii. 9: "Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which have no understanding: w

g at all; they bite fiercely, and every now and then they indulge in a violent kicking fit, flinging out their heels with wonderful force and rapidity, and turning round and round on their fore-feet so quickly that it is hardly possible to approach them. There is

sses, and on camels, and on mules, and on oxen." We have also the well-known passage in which is recorded the reply of Naaman to Elisha after the latter had cured him of his leprosy: "And Naaman said, Shall there not then, I pray thee, be given to thy servant

It is possible, however, that a special and costly breed of large and handsome Mules, like those of Andalusia, w

ver Tyre, in which the writer first enumerates the wealth and greatness of the city, and then bewails its downfall. Beginning with the words, "O Tyrus, thou hast said, I am of perfect beauty," the prophet proceeds to mention the various details of its magnificence, the number and beauty of its ships built with fi

edan, jewellery and fine linen from Syria; wheat, honey, and oil from Jud?a; wine and white wool from Damascus, and so forth. And, among all these riches, are prominently mentioned the horses and Mules from Togarmah. Now, it has been settled by the best bibliographers that t

ly from the Lebanon district. Those from Cyprus are, however, much valued, as they are very strong, diligent, and steady, their pace being nearly equal to that of t

of the oddest of these accounts for its

le, thus giving the former the honour of conveying the family into Egypt, and laid a curse upon it that it should never have parents nor descendants of its own kind, and that it should be so disliked as never to be admitted into its master's house, as is t

IN

yptians-Supposed connexion between Swine and diseases of the skin-Destruction of the herd of Swine-The locality of the event discovered-Pigs bred for the monasteries-The jewel of gold

that come under the general head of being unclean because they do not divide the hoof and chew the cu

nt Jews. Even at the present day, a zealous Jew or Mahometan looks upon the hog, or anything that belongs to the hog, with an abhorrence too deep for words. The older and str

of Swine is that passage which occurs in Lev. xi. 7: "And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean to you." But the very same parag

with which the Swine were regarded by the Jews, and in all probabili

ccur in the Book of Isaiah. See, for example, lxv. 3, 4: "A people that provoketh me to anger

one abomination upon another-the sacrifice to idols in the gardens, the burning of incense upon a forbidden altar and with strange fire, the living among the tombs, where

at offereth an oblation, as if he offered swine's blood." We see here how the prophet proceeds from one image to another: the murder of a man, the offering of a dog instead of a lamb, and the pouring out of Swine's blood upon the altar instead of wine-the last-mentioned crime being evidently held

ged to it, and would have thought themselves polluted had they been even touched with a hog's bristle. Even at the

ten has the flesh of this animal supported me, especially during the earlier part of my stay in Palestine, before I had learned to like the mutton and the goats' flesh! I give the preference

l the laws of hospitality by not inviting the chiefs of my escort or the guides to share my meal; a thing neither prudent nor safe in the open country. Therefore, on the contrary, when thus provided I pressed them with t

real wants of my party. So a piece of bacon was more service to me than a revolver, a rifle, or a sword; and I recomm

een glad even to have eaten the very husks on which the Swine fed. These husks, by the way, were evidently the pods of the locust-tree, or carob, of which we shall have more to say in a future page. We have in our

religion of the Jews. The temple at Jerusalem was to be called the Temple of Jupiter Olympus, and that on Gerizim was to be dedicated to Jupiter, the def

that he was foiled by the passive resistance offered to him. The Jews had allowed their temples to be dedicated to the worship of heathen deities, they had submitted to the deprivation of their sacred rites, they had even consented to walk in procession on the Feast of Bacchus, carr

Some of the officials, in compassion for his great age, advised him to take lawful meat with him and to exchange it for the Swine's flesh. This he refused to do, saying that his age was onl

re the sight of her sons' sufferings, the officers took them in succession, and inflicted a series of horrible tortures upon them, beginning by cutting off their tongues, hands, and feet, and ending by roasting them while still alive.

e Swine prevailed, though there was a sort of Pariah c

his clothes, he goes at once to the river and plunges into it. In the next place, swine-herds, although they be native Egyptians, are the only men who are not allowed to ente

the moon is performed in the following manner. When the sacrificer has killed the victims, he puts the tip of the tail, the spleen, and the caul together, covers them with the fat found in the belly of the animal, and then consumes it with fire. The

it to the swine-herd that sold it, that he may carry it away. The rest of this festival to Bacchu

st universal repudiation in such lands is a proof of its unfitness for food. In countries where diseases of the skin are so common, and where the dreaded leprosy still

ucing any evil results; and, moreover, that the prohibition of Moses was not confined to the Swine, but incl

is animal, we may naturally wonder how we come

who, of course, were not bound by the Law. The former seems the likelier interpretation, the destruction of the Swine being a fitting punishment for their owners. It must be here remarked, that our Lord did not, as is often said, destroy the Swine, neither did He send the devil

tements of the Evangelists who mention it do not precisely agree. This subject is so well

e exactly illustrated. We have beyond the city the field of tombs, these tombs suited for the refuge of demoniac outcasts, occupied as dwellings to the present day. We have a plain suited for the feeding of swine, with its roots and acorns,

at the coast of the Gadarenes was over against Galilee (viii. 26). I should feel thereupon disposed fully to endorse the suggestion of Dr. Thomson, that St. Matthew, writing for those intimately acquainted with the topography of the country in detail, names the obscure an

rgesa of St. Matthew. The discovery is most interesting and important. I visited the place myself from a boat, and observed the remains of a valley and a khan; but,

ity on the shores of the lake, by which is a steep place which runs down to it. In one important particular my memory corroborates the statement of Dr. Thomson, viz. that while there is here no precipice running sheer to

forated everywhere by rock-chambers of the dead that we may be quite certain that a home for the dem

eat want of spirit in matters of commerce; and in the second, the country is so unsettled that the merchants would probably be robbed

bs attached to them; the former eating the hog, and the latter only breeding it for sale. Signor Pierotti states that the pigs become as part of the family, who live and grow fat together with them. Though, he remarks, they are not so intelligent as those that listened to St. Antho

. 22, refers to the habit of wallowing in the mire, a custom which is common to all the pachydermatous animals, which, in spite of their thick hid

ed writer refers here to the custom adopted by Oriental women of wearing a ring in the nostril-a custom which has existed to the present day, and is familiar to all those who have travelled in the East. The plan which is generally ado

of casting pearls before

AR OF P

he wood doth waste

he Scriptures in which the Wild Boar is definitely mentioned,

Psalms: "Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so

it is thus rendered: "Rebuke the company of spearmen, the multitude of bulls, with the calves of the people." If the reader will refer to the marginal translation (which, it must be rema

, we will proceed to the descrip

n greatly thinned by the encroachments of mankind. Woods and reed-beds are always the habitations of the Wild Boar, which resides in these fastnesses, and seems always to prefer the reed-bed to the woo

to the crops. It is perhaps more dreaded in the vineyards than in any other ground, as it not only devours the grape

No image of a destructive enemy could therefore be more appropriate than that which is used. We have read of the little foxes that spoil the vines, but the Wild Boar is a much more destructive enemy, breaking

s. It runs with such speed, that a high-bred horse finds some difficulty in overtaking it, while an indifferent steed would be left hopelessly behind. Even on level ground the hunter has hard work to overtake it; and if it can get upon broken or hilly ground, no horse can catch it. The Wild Boar can leap to a considerable distance, and can wheel

a general hunt, and kill as many as they can manage to slay. After one of these hunts, the bodies are mostly exposed for sale, but, as the demand for them is very small, they can be purchased at a very cheap rate. Signor Pierotti bought o

ELEP

ory-The Tyrian ships-Ivory mentioned by Homer-Vessels of ivory-The Elephant as an engine of war-Antiochus and his Elephants-Oriental exaggeration-

thorized Version of the Canonical Scriptures, although frequ

historian of the glories of Solomon's palace, of which this celebrated throne, with the six steps and the twelve lions on the steps, was the central and most magnificent object. It is named together with the three hundred golden shields, the golden

that it was named among the chief of the wonders to be seen in the palace of S

find a single passage in which any allusion is made to ivory. Had we not known that ivory was largely used among the Egyptians, such an omission would cause no surprise. But the researches of modern travellers have brought to light many articles of ivory that were in actual use in Eg

may be mentioned an ivory box in the Louvre, having on its lid the name of the dynasty in which it was carved, and the

s ("Thalia," 114):-"Where the meridian declines towards the setting sun, the Ethiopian territory reaches, being the extreme part of the habi

navy of Hiram: once in three years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks." The reader will remark that an opinion has already been expressed that the country whence these articles

term "ivory," or "tooth," in such a manner that a reader of the English Version might imagine the sacred writers to think that ivory was obtained from the horn of some animal. This passage occurs in the prophet Ezekiel, xxvi

the merchandise of thine hand: they offered thee as a price horns of teeth and ebony." It is evident that the word kerenoth, or horns, is used to represent the horn-like shap

lephants' teeth." This rendering is undoubtedly the correct one. The Hebrew word is shen-habbim, and there is little, if any, doubt that the term habbim is rig

Gen. 1. 1, in which Joseph is said to have placed the

luxurious appendage of the palace. For its use in the former sense, we may take the well-known passage in the Song of Solomon: "His hands are as g

ivory palaces, whereby they have made thee glad." It has been suggested that the words "ivory palaces" may signify boxes or chests inlaid with ivory, in which were de

he made, are they not written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel?" The "ivory house" could not, of course, be built wholly of ivory, and it is evident that by the term is signified a palace, the rooms of which w

t ivory is still used, together with ebony, in panelling the walls of rooms-a combi

aterials of which the Assyrians built their ships-the planks of Senir fir, the masts of cedar, the oars of Bashan oak, the sails of fine linen, and the very benches on which the rowers sat, inlaid with ivory. How accurate was the prophet in the details of his

passages of Scripture and those of profane authors, in which ivory is m

d hands the iv'

st, are trailed a

713, Pope'

, book xxi.), king as he was, made his own bridal bed of hide thongs interlaced, and inlaid the posts with gold, ivory, and

e earth shall weep and mourn over her, for no man buyeth their merchandise any more; the merchandise

n all of them the Elephant is described as an engine of war. If the reader will refer to the First Book of the Maccabees, he will find that the Elephant is mentioned at

t multitude, with chariots, and elephants, a

as we may perceive by the context, the King of Egypt was so alarmed by the invadin

thus described in detail:-"The number of his army was one hundred thousand footme

e the elephants to fight, they showed

nted a thousand men, armed with coats of mail, and with helmets of brass on their head

the beast was; and whithersoever the beast wen

them, and were girt fast unto them with devices; there were also upon every one

hat side at the two fronts of the host, giving them signs what to do,

ly subsidiaries of the terrible beasts. The thirty-two Elephants appear to have taken such a hold of the narrator's mind, that he evidently looked upon them in the same light that the ancient Jews regarded chariots of war, or

s evidently written by an eye-witness. The mention of the native mahout, or "Indian that guided him," i

said to have carried on their backs sixty soldiers, beside the wooden tower in which they fought. It is evident that, in the first place, no

and guides of the Elephants, who were called Elephantarch?, who were the governors of sixteen El

, and a fourth in the middle of these, holding the rains, and guiding the Beast to the discretion of the Souldiers, even as the Pilot in a ship guideth the stem, wherein was required an equall kn

s spirited one, and conveys a good idea of the fight

unable to resist the fascination of his theme, and proceeds to describe, with great truth and spirit, the mode of fighting ado

nd upon them the like panniers of wood, hollow, wherein they placed their men at armes, and covered them over with small boards (for the trunck of the Elephant was covered with a mail

at the sound of the Trumpet, he beginneth with teeth to strike, tear, beat, spoil, take up into the air, cast down again, stamp upon men under feet, overthrow with his trunck, and make way for his riders to pierce with Spear, Shield,

ly exaggerated, and it is rather amusing to note how the "towers" in which they fought are modified into "panniers." Then the method by which the animal is incited t

field, is likely enough. Elephants are wonderfully fond of strong drink. They can be incited to perform any task within their powers

d, therefore, only weaken, and not strengthen, its use in battle. Accordingly we find that the writer, when describing with perfect accuracy the mode in which the Elephant fights, utterly omits all mention of the sword and the mailed proboscis, and describes the animal, not as striking or thrusting with the sword, but as overthrowing with the t

-struck at the sight of so strange an animal. Not only was it formidable for its vast size, and for the armed men which it carried, but for the

ame on in its swift, swinging pace, crushing its way by sheer weight through the ranks, and striking right and left with its proboscis. No other method of checking

the beasts, armed with royal harness, was higher than

e end he might deliver his peop

dst of the battle, slaying on the right hand and on the

d thrust him under, and slew him; whereupon

ought to be called, signifies one who pierces an animal from behi

ht into the battle-field, and the very sight of these huge beasts, towering above eve

subject to the infirmities of the lower animals. So they invented scheme after scheme, by which they baffled the attacks of these once dreaded foes, and sometimes even succeeded in driving them back among the

, and hurled their darts before the animal could strike them. Others, again, were placed in chariots, and armed with very long and sharply-pointed spears. Several of these chariots would be driven simultaneously against an Elephant, and sometimes suc

onverged a hail of javelins, arrows, and stones on every side, until the huge animal sank beneath its many wounds. By degrees, therefor

the African Elephant. The latter, however, has been tamed, and, in the days of Rome's greatest splendour, was taught to perform a series of tri

. The shape of the head, too, is different. In the Indian species, only the males bear tusks, and even many of them are unarmed. In the African species, however, both sexes bear tusks, those

N ELE

r a present horns of

roboscis, say they, gives the animal a very ugly look, so that to dream of the trunk of an Elephant is a bad omen. Indeed, it

yet afraid of the smallest. The gnat attacks him, flies into t

ecting the Elephant and the eye of the needle, exactly simil

NEY, O

ages in which the Coney is mentioned-Habits of the animal-Its activity and wariness-The South African Hyrax, and its mode of life-Difficulty of procuring it-Similarity in appearance and

one which is evidently of some importance in the Jewis

true Coney or Rabbit has never inhabited the Holy Land. There is no doubt that the Shaphan of the Hebrew Scripture, and the Coney of the Vulgate, was the Syrian Hyrax (Hyrax Syriacus). This little animal is rather larger than an ordinary rabbit, is not unlike it in appearance, and has many of its habits. It is clothed with brown fur, it is very active, it inhabits holes and clefts in rocks, a

HY

olk, yet make they their house

sharp and chisel-edged tips; the little feet, on a close inspection, are seen to be furnished with a set of tiny hoofs just like those o

er and lower teeth may be preserved sharp by continually rubbing against each other, and that they may not be suffered to grow too long, and so to deprive the animal of the means whereby it gains its food. But for this peculiar movement, which l

d with a furry coat. The reader may perhaps remember that the Hyrax does not afford a solitary instance of this structure, and that, although the eleph

h it is prohibited as food, and two in which allusion is made to its manner of l

the hoof; he is unclean unto you." The second is of a like nature, and is to be found in Deut. xiv. 7: "These ye shall not eat of them that chew the cud, or of

cks for the conies." (Ps. civ. 18.) The second makes a similar mention of the localities which the animal frequents, and in addition speaks of its wariness, including it among the "four things whic

hese passages

the Hyrax as a ruminant, and would have been likely to eat it, as its flesh is very good. It must be remembered that two conditions were needful to render an animal fit to be eaten by a Jew, the one that it must be a ruminant, and the second that it should have a divided

o the habits

an exceedingly active creature, leaping from rock to rock with wonderful rapidity, its little sharp hoofs giving it a firm hold of the hard and irregular surface of the stony ground. Eve

apensis), and which is familiar to the colonists by its name of Klip-das, or Rock-rabbit. In situations which suit it, the Hyrax is very plentiful, and is much hunted by the natives, who esteem its flesh very highly. Sm

of Southern Africa, this little creature is found. It is never, as far as my experience goes, seen in great numbers, as we find rabbits in

under the rocks, and burrows like a common rabbit. In size it is about equal to a hare, though it is much shorter in the legs, and has ears more like those of a rat than a rabbit.

view of the surrounding country. When it sees an enemy approaching, it sits rigidly on the rock and watches him without moving, so that at a little distance it is a

by white men; and when a hunter does secure one, it is generally by means of a

ance of a hundred and fifty yards or thereabouts. The Dutch Boers who were with me were delighted at the sight of it, as they said it was good

"ever gave us so much trouble to secure.... The only chance of securing one is to be concealed, particularly about sunset or before sunrise, on some overhanging cliff, taking care not to let the shadow be cast below, and then to wait until the little creatures cautiously peep forth from their holes. They are said to be common by those

lerably prolific animal, rearing four or five young at a birth, and keeping them in a soft bed of hay and fur, in which they are almost hidden. If surprised in its hole and seized, the Hyrax will bite very sharply, its

is the Ashkoko of Abyssinia; and the third is the Syrian Hyrax, or the Coney of the Bible. The two last species have

as the rabbit. Lewysohn sums up the arguments after a rather curious fashion. According to him, the strongest argument against the translation of the Biblica

or of Spain being so called on account of the number of rabbits which inhabited it. He comes at last to the conclusion that the jerboa was probably the animal which was prohibited in the M

EMO

eateth grass like the ox"-Ravages of the Hippopotamus among the crops-Structure of the mouth and teeth-The "sword or scythe" of the Hippopotamus-Some strange theories-Haunts of

verse, much less the purposes of the Creator. By presuming to bring a charge of injustice against his Maker, he in fact inferred that the accuser was more competent to govern the world than was the Creator, and thus lai

ade with thee," &c. Some commentators, in consequence of the plural termination of the word, which may be literally translated as "beasts," have thought that it was a collective term for all the largest beasts of the world, such as the elephant, the hippopotamus, the wild cattle, and their like. Others have thoug

he hippopotamus, and no other animal, is the creature which was signified b

rsion with the Jewish Bible, and noting at the same time one or two variations in the rendering of certain p

which I have made with thee

his loins, and his vigour is

cedar: the sinews of his

of copper; his bones

ys of God: he that made hi

forth food for him, and all the

otuses, in the covert

h their shadow; willows of

hasteth not: he feels secure should

his eyes: his nose pie

popotamus. A little allowance must of course be made for poetical imagery, but we shall find that in all impo

of the passage shows that it must have been an animal then existing, and whose habits were familiar to Job and his friends. Now the date o

and habits which is inferred by the context. Moreover, it cannot be said of the elephant that "he eateth grass as an ox." The elephant feeds chiefly on the leaves of trees, and when he does eat grass, he can

that Job and his companions were well acquainted with the animal. Even if the book be of an earlier date, it is still possible that the hippopotamus may, in those days, have lived in rivers where it is now as much extinct as it is in England. Mr. Tristram remarks on this point: "No hippopotamus is

ountries of Europe, embedded in gravel which contains shells of many existing species of the locality, showing that

e two largest animals known to the Jews, and it is probably

h is identical with the hippopotamus,

the words, "like as thee," i.e. that the Behemoth was the fellow-creature of Job. Others again understand them as signifying that the man and the animal were contemporaneous, and the

ke cattle, as the passage may be translated. In order to supply its huge massive body with nourishment, it consumes vast quantities of food, as indeed may be inferred from the structure of its mouth and jaws. The mouth is enormously broad and shovel-shaped, so as to take in a large quantity of

y, no longer performing the ordinary duties of teeth, but being modified into tusks, which are in all probability used as levers for prising up the vegetables on which the animal

ndeed, that it is in great request for artificial teeth, the "verniers" of philosophical instruments, and similar purposes. Consequently, with these teeth the hippopotamus can cut through the stems of thick and strong h

ely rendered in the Authorized Version: the word which is translated as "sword" also signifies a scythe, and evidently

uantities of green food, and destroys as much as it eats, by the trampling of its heavy feet. Owing to the width of the animal, the feet are placed very far apart, and the consequenc

acquainted with the character of the country where it lives, have thought that the animal only lived in the rivers, and merely found its food along its banks, or at most upon the mars

thout reference to its height. Such places are very common along the banks of the Nile, and are employed for the culture of vegetables, which would not grow properly upon the flat and marshy lands around them. These spots are very attractive to the hippo

at, in order to prevent the devastation of the world which such voracity would occasion, the herbage was miraculously renewed every night. Only two of the Behemoth were ever created, and, lest they sh

ds its food upon the hills, the sacred writer proceeds to show that in its moments of repose it is an inhab

h their shadow; the willows of

h is followed by the editor of the Jewish Bible. Apparently, however, the Authorized Version gives a more correct meaning of the term. Judging from a well-known Egyptian painting, whic

US, OR BEHEMOT

h, which I made wit

them, the little islands that stud the river, as well as the banks themselves, are thickly clothed with reeds mixed with papyrus, the whole being exactly similar to those which are represented in the conventional style of E

tail. In order that the reader should fully understand it, I have had it translated, so to speak, from the conven

, by cutting down the requisite number of trees, laying them side by side so that their bases form the stern and their points the bow of the extemporized boat. They are then firmly lashed toge

l employed for that purpose. It consists of a long shaft, into the end of which a barbed iron point is loosely inserted. To the iron point

y as it goes, the ambatch float keeps the end of the rope at the surface, so that it can be seen as soon as the animal becomes quieter. Sometimes it dives to the bottom, and remains there as l

YPTIAN

rees, in the covert of the

Hippopotamus is copie

nimal dies from loss of blood. The modern hunters never throw a second harpoon unless the one already fixed gives way, mainly employing a spear to inflict the last wounds. But if we may judge f

se, which he is throwing over the head of the hippopotamus, whose attitude and expression show

under the shelter of which the animal loves to lie, and on the su

whole scene with skill and spirit. The head and open mouth of the hippopotamus are remarkably fine, and show t

nes of the animal. The first is derived from a word signifying strength, and means the "strong bones," i.e. those of the legs. These are hollow, and are therefore aptly compared

ewish Bible, is given on page 319. A third, and perhaps the best rendering of this passage is given by the Rev. W. Drake, in Smith's "Dictionary of th

sastrous. Whole villages are swept away, and scarcely a vestige of the mud-built houses is left; the dead bodies of human beings are seen intermixed with those of cattle, and the whole country is

stine was intended. This, however, is not the case. The word "Jordan" is simply used as a poeti

context best is, "Who will take him when in his sight? His nose pierceth through (i.e. detects) snares." Now, this faculty of detecting snares is one of the chief characteristics of the hippopotamus, when it lives near places inhabited by mankind, who are

that which was used by the ancient Egyptians in urging the Israelites to their tasks, and the scene reminded the traveller so forci

rmer are simply pits dug in the path of the animal, covered with sticks and reeds, and having at the bottom a sharp

TAMUS A

eth through sna

r, exactly over the centre of the path. There is no difficulty in finding the precise centre of the path, owing to the peculiar gait of the animal, which has already been described. One end of the trigger supports the spear, and to the other is attached a rope, which is brought acr

gh to detect either pitfall or drop-trap that have not been contrived with especial care. An old and experienced hippopotamus becomes so wary that he will be suspicious even

more intellect than might be expected from a creature of so dull, clumsy, and unpromising aspect. Apathetic it general

, the eyes, and the ears above the surface, these organs being set in a line along the head, evidently for the purp

ider the intruding object as an enemy, and to attack it, sometimes crushing the canoe between its teeth, and mostly upsetting it, and throwing the crew into the water. In such a case, the men always dive at once to the bottom of the river, and hold on to some weed or rock as long as they can exist without breathing. The reason for this proceeding is, that

Behemoth which requires a few words of explanat

t the crocodile was the animal that was signified by the Behemoth. Others, again, have shifted the position of the tail, and, by rendering it as the "proboscis," have identified the Behemot

RD

H

OR OSSIFRAGE

Hebrew word Peres, and its signification-The Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker-Appearance of the L?mmergeier-Its flight and mode of feeding-How t

in Scripture. This difficulty is greatly increased when we come to the Birds, and in many instances it is absolutely impossible to identify the Hebrew word

ies designated by several dissimilar words? The word Vulture, for example, is used to signify a great number of birds, including the L?mmergeier, the Condors, the Griffons, the Caracaras, and others; while the term Eagle has scarcely a less wide signification. Som

been classed under a single title, giving a general description of the whole, and a detail

R, OR OSSIFRAG

not eat: the eagle, and the ossifr

"Peres," a term which only occurs twice when signifying a species of bird; namely, in Lev. xi. 13, and the parallel passage in Deut. xiv. 12. The first of these passages runs as follows: "These ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they

ith the remainder of the predacious birds, all of which are declared to be unfit for food. We must therefore look for some assistance i

hat it seemed likely to fall. Uzzah, who walked by the side of the cart, while his brother marched in front of the oxen, instinctively put out his hand to uphold it, and fell dead by the side of the ark which he ha

called together the priests and Levites, to whom he gave the commission to bring the ark with due honour, and "said unto them, Ye are the chief of the fathers

xv. 12, 13). David again employed the word to signify the breaking up or destruction of the Philistines. "David smote them there, and said, T

r, written by the hand upon the wall, "Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin," or peres, the la

Ossifraga, or Bone-breaker, is a very good translation of the

n by the tuft of long, hair-like feathers which depends from the beak, and which has gained for the bird the title of Bearded Vulture. The colour of the plumage is a mixture of different browns and greys, tawny b

of this great spread of wing, it looks when flying like a much larger bird than it really is, and its size has often been variously misstated. Its flight, as may

urope and Asia. It is spread over the Holy Land, never congregating in numbers, like ordinary vultures

hey tear it to pieces, and soon remove all the flesh. This having been done, the L?mmergeier comes to the half-picked bones, eats the remaining flesh from them, and finishes by breaking them and eatin

he bone falls. Should the bone be broken by the fall, the bird picks the marrow out of the fragments; and should it have escaped fracture by reason of falling on a soft piece of ground instead of a ha

ying to peck the shell open, but carries its prey high in the air, drops it on the ground, and so breaks its shell to pieces. Tortoises are often very hard-shelled creatures, and the L?mmergeier has been observed to raise one of them and drop it six or seven times before the stubbor

or a white stone, and killed him by dropping a tortoise upon it, was in all likelihood a L?mmergeier, the bird be

its prey to a sufficient height. The air, as we all know, becomes more and more attenuated in exact proportion to the height above the earth; and did not the bird

among mountain ranges, and it may be seen floating about them for hours together, watching each inch of ground in search of prey. Should it see a goat or other inhabitant of the rocks standing near a

seless is the rush of the bird, that an animal which has once been marked by its blood-red eye seldom escapes from the swoop; and even the Alpine hunters, who spend their lives in pursuit of the c

asp the living animal in a deadly hold, and to drive the sharp talons into its vitals. They are not well adapted for holding prey, the talons not possessing the hook-like form or the sharp points which characterise those of the eagl

. It is almost always placed upon a lofty cliff, and contains about a wagon-load or s

t is called by a name which signifies Father Longbe

N VULTURE O

the word Racham-Various translations of the word-The shape, size, and colour of the bird-Its value as a scavenger, and i

e, which is named with the cormorant and the pelican as one of the birds which the Jews are forbidden to eat. The word which is translated as Gier-Eagle is Racham, a name which is almost identical with the Arabic name of the Eg

ird, we will examine the other interpretati

torf, the bird in question is the merops or bee-eater, "a bird so called from the love and pity which is shown to its pa

e for the great length of its toes, by means of which it can walk on floating herbage as it lies on the surface of the water. The colour of the bird is a rich and variable blue, darker on the back

ULTURE, OR

e gier-eagle, and the co

ded on the ground that the bird must belong to the aquatic group, being placed between the pelic

bird, according to the authors whom he quotes, is the Schirkrek, and derives its name from its peculiar cry, which begins with a hiss (Schirk) and ends with a shriek (Rek). The bird utters its cry w

, we may safely accept the conclusion, and consider the Racham

lour is white, with the exception of the quill feathers of the wings, which are dark-brown. The bill and the naked face and legs are bright ochreous yellow.

rown being very conspicuous when it is on the wing. In this plumage it has never been seen in England, but one

irs, the male and female never separating, and invariably being seen close together. In fact, in places where it is common it is hardly possible to travel more than a mile or two without seeing a pair of Egyptian Vultures. Should more than two of thes

uch too feeble to enable it to cope with the true vultures in tearing up a large carcase, and in consequence it never really associates with them, although it may be seen hovering near

patience to the inferior scavengers. A long row of Egyptian vultures were sitting on some rocks, so intently watching a spot in a corn-field that they took no notice of o

terly regardless of our presence within ten yards of them, began to gorge. We had hardly retired two hundred yards, when the griffons came down with a swoop, and the Egyptian vultures and a p

s for specimens has some difficulty in procuring the bird, or even its egg. It wanders about the streets of the villages, and may generally be

ountries. So tame is it, that it may even be observed, like the gull and the rook of our own country, following the ploughman as he turns u

ss than its own kind. Indeed, it is so utterly fearless with regard to human beings, that it habitually follows the caravans as

he Egyptian Vulture. The bird cannot, like the l?mmergeier, carry the egg into the air and drop it on the ground, because its feet are not large enough to grasp it, and only slip off its round and polished surface. Therefore, instead of raisin

lon is called "nara," and is devoured by various creatures, such as lions

and rude mass of sticks, sods, bones, and similar materials, to which are added any bits of rag, rope, skin, and other village refuse which it can pick up as it traverses the streets. There are two, and occasionally three, eggs, rather

life, and well exhibit the feeble beak, the peculiar and intelligent, almost cunning expression of the head, and the ruff of feathers which surrounds the upper part of the neck. In the distance another bird is drawn

H

RE, OR EAGLE

e Vulture used as an image of strength, swiftness, and rapacity-Its powers of sight-How Vultures assemble round a carcase-Nesting-places of the Griffon-Mr. Tristram's description of the Griffon-Rock-caves of the Wa

Eagle, but which was undoubtedly a different bird, and has satisfactorily been identified with the Griffon Vulture, or Great Vulture (Gyps fulvus). The reasons for this conclusion a

g vision. The Talmudical writers mention a curious proverb concerning the sight of the Vulture, namely, that a Vulture in Babylon can see a carcase in Palestine. Other scholars de

colour of the adult bird is a sort of yellowish brown, diversified by the black quill feathers and the ruff of white down that surrounds t

ort of five feet in total length, and the

be seen daily, soaring high in the air, and sweeping their graceful way in the grand curves which distinguish the flight of the large birds of prey. They are best to be seen in the early morning, being in the habit of

ered together" (Matt xxiv. 28). That the Vulture, and not the eagle, is here signified, is evident from the fact that the eagles do not

age reference is made, not to the eagle, whose head is thickly covered with feathers, but to the Vulture, whose head and neck are but scantily sprinkled with white down. Some commentators, not aware that the word nesher should have been rendered as "vulture,

food, are both mentioned in Job xxxix. 27-30: "Doth the eagl

the rock, upon the crag of th

eth the prey, and her

up blood: and where the

"that bitter and hasty nation, which shall march through the bread

shall spread themselves, and their horsemen shall come f

the carnivorous nature of the bird: "The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to ob

of David's lamentation over the bodies of Saul and Jonathan, who, according to the poet's metaphor, "were lovely and pleasa

y the prophet Jeremiah: "Our persecutors are swifter than the eagles of the heavens; the

marvellous swiftness. All who had ever witnessed a battle were familiar with the presence of the Vulture-the scene of carnage, and the image which is employed, would be one which commended itself at once to those for whom i

this bird are mentioned in the passage fr

It certainly does possess a vision of no ordinary capacity, which is able to assume either a telescopic or a microscopic cha

y of a dead animal, and instantly swoops down upon it like an arrow from a bow. In order to enable the bird to see so distant an object, the eye has been exercising its telescopic powers, a

; but the reader can find it in every good work on comparative anatomy, and is strongly advi

ill be covered with Vultures, who arrive from every side, looking at first like tiny specks in the air, scarcely perceptible even to practised eyes, and all directing their flight to the same point. "Where the carcase i

on may be concealed, know perfectly well that a Vulture soars high in the air when searching for food, and only darts to the earth when it has found a suitable prey. They immediate

elegraph, that a dead body of some animal has been found, and, aided by their wonderful p

satisfy the Vulture. To reach the nest of this bird is therefore a very difficult task, only to be attempted by experienced and intrepid cragsmen; and, in consequence, both the eggs and young of the Griffon Vulture can

and equally forcible one, is to be found in the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah: "Thy terribleness hath deceived thee, and the pride of thine heart, O thou that dwellest in the clefts o

the sun never penetrates, walls the rapid brook on each side so closely that we often had to ride in the bed of the stream. The cliffs are perforated with caves at all heights, wholly inaccessible to man, the secure resting-place of hundreds

is half a mile wide. By the aid of Giacomo, who proved himself an expert rope-climber, we reaped a good harvest of griffons' eggs, some of the party being let down by ropes, while those above were guided in working them by signals from others below in the valley. It required the aid of

form the limits of the celebrated Plain of Hattin, were the ruins of Irbid, the ancient Arbela, marked principally by the remains of a synago

es shall be spoiled, as Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel in the day of battle' (Ho

power of Herod the Great at defiance. At length, when all other attempts at scaling the fortress had failed, he let down soldiers at this very spot in boxes, by chains, who attacked the robbers with long hooks, and succeeded in rooting them all out. The exploit w

pacious chambers. Tier after tier rise one after another with projecting windows, connected by narrow staircases, carried sometimes upon arches, and in the upper portions rarely broken away. In many of the upper chambers to which we were let down, the dust of ages had

ild, the natives never venture to enter them, being deterred not so much by their height, as by their superstitiou

parent birds. At first the young are rather nervous at the task which lies before them, and shrink from trusting themselves to the air. The parents, however, encourage the

oses, in which the aged leader, whose forty years' work was at last finished, recapitulates the mercies vouchsafed to the people of

e howling wilderness; He led him about, He inst

th over her young, spreadeth abroad her win

m, and there was no strange go

See, for example, Exod. xix. 4: "Ye have seen what I did to the Egyptians,

one of the chief emblems of Egyptian power, and its outspread wings continually rec

ib, was a vulture-headed deity, bearing not only the head of the bird, but also its wings. The vast wings of the Vulture were by the Assyrians used as types of Divine power, and were therefor

nce to the Arabic niss'r. This bird was also the war standard of Assyria, just as the eagle is tha

was the face of a cherub, and the second face was the face of a man, and the third the face of a lion, and the fourth the face of an eagle" (Ezek. x. 14). Then, in the Revelation,

, OR EAGLE

there will the eagles be gath

was like a calf, and the third beast had a face as

is not enough carrion in the whole of England to feed a single Vulture for a month, we have no practical knowledge of them, and are apt to confound, under the common title of Vulture, birds of most dissimilar aspect. Some of them,

though it be, it is not disgusting in its habits, and may even be called a cleanly bird. It is intelligent, after its way, and is quite as susceptible of human teaching as

eristic is noticed in the well-known passage, "Bless the Lord, O my soul, and forget not all His benefits: ..

aken for granted that the eagle had some mode of renewing its youth, and, in fact, after becoming old, went through some process by which it shook off the decrepitude of old age, and became young again. Others, seeing that such an interpretation was both strained and far-fe

the Psalmist, when using the expression "renewing the youth like an eagl

e sacred writers were thoroughly acquainted with the bird, and that they wrote of it with an occasional fulness a

al, another is upon her nest, and several Vultures, who have gorged themselves with food after their fashion, are sitting listlessly on the rock, in some of the singular position

ts head sunk between its shoulders, and one wing trailing behind it as if broken. At another it will bend its legs and sit down on the ankle-joint, pushing its feet out in front, and supporting itself by the stiff feathers of its tail. Often it will crouch nearly flat on the ground, partly spread its wings, and allow their tips to rest on the earth, and sometimes it will support

EA

ake thy nest as high as

EA

litary mode of life-The Short-toed Eagle-Its domestic habits and fondness for the society o

under the general title of Asniyeh-the word which in the Authorized Version of the Bible is rendered as Osprey. A similar confus

nfit it for associating with its kind. Any animal which lives chiefly, if not wholly, by the chase, requires a large district in order to enable it to live, and thus twenty or thirty eagles will be scat

n company with the lesser vultures, though it retires before the lordly griffon. Being so thinly scattered, it would not be so conspicuous a bird as the griffon,

hite patch on the shoulders, and the long, lancet-shaped feathers of the head and neck. These feathers are of a fawn colour, and contrast beautifully with the deep black-brown of

d-so plentiful indeed that, as Mr. Tristram remarks, there are probably twice as many of the Short-toed Eagles in Palestine as of all the other species put together. The genus t

ogs. It is a large and somewhat heavily built bird, lightness and swiftness being far less necessary than strength in taking the animals on which it feeds. It is ra

OS

range-Mode of securing prey-Structure of its

OS

hall not eat; the eagle, and

. xi

ped together under the collective term Asniyeh. This word occurs only in the two passages in Deut

nd is found in the New World as well as the Old. In consequenc

o so is no matter of surprise, inasmuch as they are able to pursue the fish in their own element, and catch them by superior speed. But any bird which cannot dive, and which yet lives on fish, is forced to content itself with those fish that co

watching every inch of it as narrowly as a kestrel watches a stubble-field. No sooner does a fish rise toward the surface to take a fly, or to leap into the air for sport, than the Ospre

uld not be able to use its strong wings and carry off its prey. In order to enable the bird to seize the hard and slippery body of the fish, it is

being able to balance itself in one spot without seeming to move a wing, and having the singular facility of doing so even when a

throughout the whole of that country where it can find a sufficiency of water. It pref

R VULTURE O

e-Its piercing sight and habit of soaring-The Black Kite of Palestine and its habits-The Egyptian Kite-The Raah or Glede of Scripture-Th

translation of the word is an incorrect one, and that it ought to be rendered as Kite. In Job xxviii. 7, there is a similar word, ayah, which is also translated as Vulture, and which is acknowledged to be not a Vulture, but one of the Kites: "There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen." Both

R VULTURE O

owl knoweth, and which the

xxvi

this country, and is now nearly extinct; and dayah to the Black Kite (Milvus atra). He founds this distinction on the different habits of the two species, the Co

rst take t

osprey, darting from a great height into the water, and bearing off the fish in its claws. The wings of this bird are very long and powerful, and bear it through th

e that will serve it for food. This piercing sight and habit of soaring render the passage in Job peculiarly appropriate to this species of Kite, though it does not express the habits of the other. Should the Kite suspect danger when forced t

lly the neighbourhood of valleys, where it is a welcome and unmolested guest. It does not appear to attack the poultry, among whom it may often be seen feeding on garbage. It is very sociable, and the slaughter of a sheep at one of the tents will soon attract a large party of black kites, which swoop down regardless of man and guns, and enjoy a noisy scramble for the refuse,

s to conceal it, sometimes building it in a tree, sometimes on a rock-ledge, and sometimes in a bush growing on the rocks. It seems indeed desirous of m

among poultry as the red kite. It is also a robber of other birds, and if it should happen to see a weaker bird with food, it is sure to attack and rob it. Like the black kite, it is fond of the society of man, and haunts the village

word occurs, and we have but small grounds for definitely identifying it with any one species. The Hebrew Bible retains the word Glede, but affixes a mark of doubt to it, and several commentators are of opinion that the word is a wrong reading of

tic of the bird, which, as we know, is one of the attributes of the Kites, together with other birds of prey, so that it evidently must be classed among the group with which we are now concerned. It has been suggeste

ir wings are short when compared with those of the vultures and eagles, the flight of the bird is both powerful and graceful. It is not, however, remarkable for swiftness, and never was employed, lik

FALCON, OR GLE

ite, and the vulture afte

animal on which it can feed, pounces on it, and returns to its post, the whole movements being very like those of the flycatcher. This sl

gives several notices of this bird, from which we may take the following picture from a description of a scene at Endor. "Dreary and desolate looked the plain, though of exuberant fertility. Here and there might b

tance from our guns. Hariers were sweeping more rapidly and closely over the ground, where lambs appeared to be their only prey; and a noble peregrine falcon, which in Central Pale

d by a bold and experienced climber. The nests of this bird are never built in close proximity, the Peregrine preferring to have its home at least a mile from the nest of any other of its kinsfolk. Some

he Lanner Falcon (Falco lanarius), another of the large

one of the birds that were reckoned among the noble falcons; and the female, which is much larger and stronger than the ma

it is not even a visitor of our island. The mistake has occurred by an error in nomenclature, the young female Peregr

NNER F

d as pursuing some of the rock-pigeons which abound in Pa

HA

-Its place of nesting-The Kestrel, or Wind-hover-Various names by which it is known in England-Its mode of feeding and curious flight-T

s not surprising, seeing that even in this country and at the present time, the single word Hawk may signify any one of at least twelve different species. The various falcons, the hariers, the kestrel, the sparrow-hawk, and the ho

is named, together with the eagle, the ossifrage, and many other birds, as among the unclean creatures, to eat which was an abomin

g therefore that several kinds or species of Hawk were meant. Indeed, any specific detail would be quite needless, as the collective term was quite a sufficient indicati

turn [or stretch] her wings toward the south?" The precise signification of this passage is rather doubtful, but it is generally considered to refer to the migration of several of the Hawk

times it builds in deserted ruins, but its favourite spot seems to be the lofty tree-top, and, in default of that, the rock-crevice. It seldom builds a nest of its own, but takes possession of that which has been made by some other bird. Some ornithologists think that it looks out for a convenient nest, say of the crow

tivity. As is the case with so many of the birds, the female is much larger than her mate, the latter weighing about six ounces

(Tinnunculus alaudarius). This is the same species with which we are so f

ST

ly by thy wisdom

never hovers at an elevation exceeding forty feet, while others, myself included, have seen the bird hovering at a height of twice as many yards. Generally, however, it prefers a lower distance, and is able by employing this man?uvre to survey a tolerably

ts being often found within a few yards of each other. Mr. Tristram remarks that he has found its nest in the recesses of the caverns occupied by the griffon

, which it catches with its claws, the common chafers forming its usual prey. Great numbers of these birds live together, and as they rather affect the society of mankind, they are fond

which it is so fond of assuming. After a while, the Kestrel ascended to a higher elevation, and then resumed its hovering, in the attitude which is shown in the upper figure. In consequence of the great abundance of this sp

hern Europe, throughout the greater part of Asia, in Siberia, and in portions of Africa. The bird, therefore, is capable of

chase the smaller birds as successfully as the falcons can be taught to pursue the heron. The name Tinnunculus is supposed by some to h

arier Hawks flying below the rock on which the peregrine falco

ound in Palestine, where they take, among the plains and lowlands, the

nds when searching for hares. This bird is essentially a haunter of flat and marshy lands, where it finds frogs, mice, lizards, on which it usually feeds. It does not, howe

the localities in which it lives, and it seldom soars to any great height, except when it amuses itself by rising and wheeling in circles together with its mate. This proceeding generally takes place before nest

e ground, and is composed of reeds, sedges, sticks, and similar matter, materials that can be procured from marshy land. The nest is always elevated a foot or so from the ground, and has occasionally been found on the top of a moun

Hen Harier (Circus cyaneus), sometimes called the White Hawk, Dove Hawk, or Blue Hawk, on account of the plumage of the male, which differs greatly according to age; and the Ring-tailed Hawk, on account of the dark bars

catching birds and animals by means of Hawks is a favourite amusement among Orientals, as has already been mentioned when treating of the gazelle (page 1

undance of cultivated soil rendering such an amusement almost impossible. Besides, the use of the falcon implie

onry, that the amusement is practised there at the present day, and that the Israelites passed so many years as captives in other countries, we can but wonder that the Hawks should never be mentioned as aids to bird-catching. We find that o

E

the bird-The Barn, Screech, or White Owl a native of Palestine-The Yansh?ph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl-Its food and nest-The

wl in the Authorized Version, and in most cases the rendering is acknowledged to be the c

ch are an abomination, and which might not be eaten by the Israelites: "

, and the cormorant

Deut. xiv. Now the words which are here translated as Owl are totally different words in the Hebrew, so that if we leave them untr

the cormorant, a

doubtful mark. Now the same word occurs in several other passages of Scripture, the first being in Job xxx. 29: "I am a brother to dragons, and a companion to owls." In the marginal reading of the Authorized Version, which, as the reader must bear i

ds that haunt ruins and lonely places. Taking them in order, we find the word c?s to occur again in Ps. cii. 6: "I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the desert." The Psalm

species which is signified by the word c?s bears but very slightly on the subject, inasmuch as in general habits all the true Owls are very similar in

the Continent where it is much valued by bird-catchers, who employ it as a means of attracting small birds to their traps. They place it on the top of a long pole, and carry it into the fields, where they plant the pole in the ground. This Owl has a curious habit of swaying its body backwards and forwards, and is sure to attract the notice of all the small

t as they certainly did so employ decoy birds for the purpose of attracting game, it is not unlikely that the Little

ITTLE

wl of the deser

ighbourhood of villages, and may be seen quietly perched in some favourite spot, not taking the trouble to move unless it be approached closely. And to detect a perched Owl is not at all an easy matter, as the bird has a way of selecting some spot where the colour

to this Owl because it is the species sele

s is likely to be the case, the word c?s is a collective term under which several

wanderer, and made him fancy that the place was haunted by disturbed spirits. Such being the case in England, it is likely that in the East, where popular superstition has peopled every well with its jinn and every ruin with its sp

e Owl, and, whether or not it be mentioned under a separate name, is s

prohibitory passages of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, but in the Book of Isaiah. In that book, ch. xxxiv. ver. 10, 11, we fi

d the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall stretch out upon it the line of con

d the Virginian Eared Owl (Bubo Virginianus) of America. This fine bird measures some two feet in length, and looks much larger than its real size, owing to the thick coating of

n his prediction. It is very plentiful in Egypt, where the vast ruins are the only relics of a creed long passed away or modified into other forms of

hidden in some deep and dark recess, its enormous eyes not being able to endure the light of day. In the evening it issues from its retreat, a

ng fawn occasionally fall victims to its voracity. It seems never to chase any creature on the wing, but floats silently through the air

ng to the same spot year after year. Should it not be able to find either a rock or a ruin, it contents itself with a hollow in the ground, and there lays its eggs, which are generally two in number

its talons a dead hare, and with ear-tufts erect is looking towards the Barn Owl, which is contemplating in mingled anger and fear the proceedings o

ound in the Book of Isaiah, the poet-prophet, who seized with a poet's intuition on the natural objects ar

inuation of the prophecy against Idumea, which has already been quoted. "And thorns shall come up in her palaces

s of the island, and the satyr shall cry to his fellow; the screec

e her nest, and lay, and hatch

view of the word by translating it as "a nocturnal one," evidently basing this interpretation upon the derivation of the word. Several Hebraists have thought that the word lilith merely represents some mythological being, like the dread Lamia of the ancients, a mixture of the material and spiritual-too ethereal to be seen by daylight, and too gross to be above t

E

nion to owls.

ights" repeatedly alludes to this belief, the evil spirit being almost invaria

etaphorically, it is equally possible that some nocturnal bird may have been meant, and in that case the bird in question must almost certainly have been an Owl of some kind. As to the particular species of Owl, that is a question which cannot be satisfactorily ans

is kippoz, and occurs in ch. xxxiv. 15: "

t as "darting serpent." This interpretation, however, is scarcely tenable, as the description of the Kippoz as making its nest, laying its eggs, and gathering them under its shadow, clearly points to a bird, and not a reptile. It is very true that the boa or python snake has been seen to coil itself round a heap of its eggs, but the sacred writer could hardly have had many opportunities of seeing such an act, while the custom of a bird gatheri

country, being little more than seven inches in length, with long ear-tufts, and

es. It feeds, as might be presumed from its diminutive size, on mice, small reptiles, and insec

IGHT-

he Nightjar-Various names of the bird-Its remarkable jarring cry, and wheelin

the word Tachmas, which is rendered in

ists have thought that the male ostrich was signified by tachmas, the word bath-haya'anah being supposed by them to signify the female ostrich. It is hardly pro

ibitory list. The balance of probability seems to lie between two interpretations,-namely, that which considers the word tachmas to signify the Night-hawk, and that which translates it as Owl. For both of the

IGHT-

ght-hawk, and the cu

s; and, as we have already treated of the owls, we will accept the rendering of the Authorized Version. Moreover

ames being given to it on account of its peculiar cry. There are few birds, indeed, which have received a greater variety of popular names, for, besides the Goatsucker and the five which have already been mentioned, there ar

let falling on the cogs of a rapidly-working wheel. It begins in the dusk of evening, the long, jarring note being rolled out almost interminably, until the hearer wonders how the bird can have breath enough for such a prolonged sound. The hearer may hold his breath as long as he can, take a full

l, though to many the bird is unknown except by its voice. It is probable that, in the days when Moses wrote the Law, so conspicuous a b

, and sometimes rising high in the air, and the next moment skimming along the ground. Suddenly it will disappear, and next moment its long trilling cry is heard from among the branches of the tree round which it has been flying. To see it while singing is almost impossible, for it has a habit of sitting l

larly graceful. Swift as the swallow itself, it presents a command of wing that is really wonderful, gliding through the air with consummate ease, wheeling and doubling in pursuit of some active moth, whose white wings glitter against the dark background, while the sober plumage of its pursuer is scarcely visible, passing often wit

of wing of twenty inches, and yet weighs rather less than three ounces. Its large mouth, like that of the swallow tribe, opens as far as the eyes, and is furnished with a set

SWAL

d Bee-eaters-Variety of small birds found in Palestine-The Swallows of Palestine-Swallows protected by man in various countries-Nesting of the Swallow-The Rufous Swallow and Martin-The Sis or Swift-Va

the mammalia mentioned in the Bible, t

y offer conjectures. The fact is, the Jews of old had no idea of discriminating between the smaller birds, unless they happened to be tolerably conspicuous by plumage or by voice. We need no

orant of entomology look at a collection of moths. There is not much difficulty in discriminating between the great hawk-moths, and perhaps in giving a name to one or two of them which are specially noticeable for any peculiarity of form or colour; but when they come to the "Rustics," the "Carpet

en along a country lane, can name the commonest weed or insect, or distinguish between a sparrow, a linnet, a hedge-sparrow, and a chaffinch. Nay, how many are there who, if

t faculty is absolutely neglected as a matter of education. Moreover, in England we have a comparatively limited list of birds, whereas in Palestine are found nearly all those which are reckoned among British birds, and m

terms are used in the Scriptures, one word often doing duty for twenty or thirty species. The only plan, therefore, which can be adopted

he singing of birds would be brought as prominently forward as the neck clothed with thunder of the horse, the tameless freedom of the wild ass, the voracity of the vulture, and the swiftness of the ostrich. We might expect the song of birds to be mentioned by Amos, the herdman of Tekoa, who introduces into his rugged poem the rear of the old lion and the wail of the cub, the venom of the serpent hidden in the wattl

habitation, which sing among the branches." This passage is perhaps rendered more closely in the Jewish Bible: "Ove

ghters of music shall be brought low." The word which is here translated as "bird," is that which is rendered in some places as "sparrow," in others as "fowl," and in others as "bird

which have been translated as S

ver, agreed that the latter word has been wrongly applied, the trans

ne of them comments upon the bird as being "so called, because it has the liberty of building in the houses of mankind." Another takes a somewhat similar view of the case, but puts it in a catechetical form: "Why is the swallow called the bird of liberty? Beca

ne of these groups was distinguished by a separate name. Whether of not the word deror included other birds beside the Swallows is rather doubtful, though not

t take in the Old World the place occupied by the humming-birds in the New, and often mistaken for them by travellers who are not acquainted with ornithology. One of these birds, the Nectarinia Ose?, is described by

itself, comprising within its narrow boundaries the most opposite conditions of temperature, climate, and soil. Some parts are rocky, barren, and mountainous, chilly and cold at the top, and acting as channels through wh

ar. Through the centre of Palestine runs the Jordan, fertilizing its banks with perpetual verdure, and ending its course in the sulphurous and bituminous waters of the Dead Sea, under whose waves the ruins of the wicked cities are supposed to lie. West

WALLOW AND G

d the swallow observe the time

under the tropics, those who lived in a cold climate could scarcely have understood the language in which the Scriptures must necessarily have been couched. Had it, on the contrary, taken its rise in the Arctic regions, the inhabitants of the tropics and temperate regions could not have comprehended the imagery in which the teachings of Scripture mu

s of the Swallow are inhabitants of Palestine, if indeed so migrator

and southwards as autumn begins to sink into winter. By some marvellous instinct it traces its way over vast distances, passing over hundreds of miles where nothing but the sea is beneath it, and yet at the appointed season returning with unerring certainty to the spot where it was hatc

, and the swallow a nest for herself, where she may lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of Hosts, my King and my God" (Ps. lxxxiv. 3). The Swallow seems in all countries to have enjoyed the protection of man, and to have b

due supply of milk. The connexion between the milking of a cow in the field and the destruction of a Swallow's nest in the house is not very easy to see, but nevertheless su

e bird, the Swallow enjoys at the present day the protection of man, and builds freely in his houses, and even his places of worship. The heathen temples, the Mahom

kes possession of the clefts of rocks, and therein makes its nest. Many instances are known where the Swallow has chosen the most extraordinary places for its nest. It has been known to buil

not come" (Prov. xxvi. 2). This passage is given rather differently in the Jewish Bible, though the general sense remains the same: "As the bird is ready to flee, as the sw

the migratory species, while another, the Oriental Swallow (Hirundo cahirica), often remains in the warmer pa

arts of Europe, but is plentiful in Palestine. It may be easily known by the chestnut red of the back just above the tail, in the spot where th

gland, namely, the House Martin (Chelidon urbica) and the Sand Martin (Cotyle riparia). At least two o

wift. The word is sis, and occurs in two passages. The first occurs in Isa. xxxviii. 13, 14, in the well-known prayer of Hezekiah during his sickness: "From day even to night wilt thou make an end of me. Like a crane [sis], or a swallow, so did I chatter: I did mourn

p, shrill cries often betray its presence while it is sailing in the air almost beyond the ken of human eyes. There is a wailing, melancholy

, and the crane [sis], and the swallow observe the time of their coming; but my people know not the judgment of the

t; for whereas the other migratory birds seem to straggle, as it were, into the country, the Swifts arrive almost simu

he roofs of houses. Almost any hole will do for a Swift to build in, provided that it be tolerably d

larity the feathers which compose its nest, as may be seen by a beautiful specimen obtained by Mr. Gould; whereas the Swift merely places together a quantity of hay, straw, h

, and so is the Alpine Swift (Cypselus melba), a bird which is rare in England, though it occasionally visits our shores. It i

large communities, and has a pleasing note, a gentle and melodious wail, very different from the harsh scream of the other swifts. Its nests are very peculiar, being composed generally of straw and feathers, agglutinated together by the bird's saliva, like those of the

ed by Hezekiah, its soft wailing cry being used

Talmudical writers have

e shall presently see, to signify the sparrow in particular, or any little bird in general. The particular species, therefore, which is signified by the combination of the two words tzippor-deror is rather obscure, and the Talmudists themselves are rather uncertain about it. The interpretation of this compound word seems, however, to have been a di

d, when, according to some writers, it had reached the size of a Tzippor-deror, and weighed two selaim. Others enlarged upon this story, and said that it grew as large as a wild pigeon, and weighed two po

s curious proviso was, that if any unclean flesh, such as that of the swine, or of any animal which had been offered to idols, had been cooked in that vessel, even the date-shells would become unclean. But, if the mouth of the pot were too small for a Tzippor-deror to be passed through it, such a vessel could not have been used in cooking meat, and might ther

be mixed with a certain quantity of water, which it barely discoloured, staining it of a very pale red. As the amount of water was the fourth part of a "log," and is

e of the characteristics of the Swifts, who often cling to walls for a time, and then resume their flight. They do so in preference to sitting on the ground after the fashion of the Swallow, because the great length of the wings causes the Swift to fi

OR LAPWING O

eauty and ill reputation-The unpleasant odour of its nest-Food of the Hoopoe-Its

e name of a bird which is translated in the Authorized Version, Lapwin

k-of-the-woods, or capercailzie, while others have preferred to translate it as Hoopoe. The Jewish Bible retains the word lapwing, but adds the ma

bird as the lapwing, or any of its kin, while there would be ve

d by the ignorant with a kind of superstitious aversion. This universal distaste for the Hoopoe is probably occasioned by an exceedingly pungent

but little of that thorough ventilation which is found in nearly all nests which are built on boughs and sprays. The odour in question proceed

HO

efore follow that the insects which it finds are possessed of an evil smell. On the contrary, some of the worst-smelling insects-notably the lace-wing fly and many of the flower-haunting hemiptera-are in

ct. Beetles of various kinds seem to be their favourite food, and when the beetles are tolerably large-say, for example, as large as the common cockchafer and dor-beetle-the bird beats them into a soft mass before it attempts to eat

ree. In many parts of the country however, hollow trees cannot be found, and in

gestures. It has a way of elevating and depressing its crest, and bobbing its head up and down, in a manner which could not fail to attract

mighty wizard rather than a wise king, and by means of his seal, on which was engraven the mystic symbol of Divinity, held sway over the birds, the beasts, the elements, and even over

Hoopoes to ask for a boon, and it should be granted to them. The birds, after consulting together, agreed to ask that from that time every Hoopoe should wear a crown of gold like Solomon himself. The request was immediately granted, and each Hoopoe found itself

and, besides, the wealth bestowed on the birds rendered them the prey of every fowler. The unfortunate Hoopoes wer

e did by substituting a crest of feathers for the crown of gold. The Hoopoe, however, never forgets its former gr

SPAR

house-tops-The Blue Thrush, its appearance and habits-Little birds exposed for sale in the market-The two Sparrows sold for a farthing-Bird-catching-The

ion of the compound word tzippor-deror,

fying any small bird that is not specially designated. In several portions of Scriptu

s employed as a bird of sacrifice. When a leper had found that his disease had passed away, he was ordered to present himself before the priest, who would examine him, and decide whether the lepro

for him that shall be cleansed two birds [tzipporim or sparrows] alive and clean, and cedar-wood, and scarlet, and hyssop." One of thes

that the leper was not restricted to any particular species. Had this been the case, there would have been no necessity for stipulating that the Tzipporim must belong to the list of clean birds

ally mentioned, because it would not be right to offer a maimed or diseased animal-he who presented himself before the Lord might not offer a sacrifice which cost him nothing, and therefore was no true sacrifice. But the lamb and the dove were known to be "clean" a

now pass to Ps. cii. 5-7, in which we find that the word is used as an emblem of sol

the wilderness: I am l

s a sparrow alone

ird" in Lev. xiv. 4. The Hebrew Bible more consistently uses the collective term "bird" in

rrelsome enough with its fellows, and always ready to fight for a stray grain or morsel of food; but it is exceeding

isplays in England. It is often seen upon roofs or house-tops, but is no more apt to sit alone in Palestine than it is in England. On the contrary, the S

communed with Saul upon the top of the house"-this being the ordinary place which would be chosen for a conversation. In order to keep out the heat of the mid-day sun, tents were sometimes pitched upon these flat house-tops. (See 2 Sam. xvi. 22.) Reference to the use of the house-tops as places for conversation are made in the New Testament. See, for example,

her. As this roof would not keep out the rain, it is covered with a thick layer of clay mixed with straw, and beaten down as hard as possible. This covering has constantly to be renewed, as, even in the best made roofs, the heavy

. As soon as the rains fall, these seeds spring up, and afford food to the Sparrows and other little birds, wh

at we may accept the Blue Thrush (Petrocossyphus cyaneus) as the particular Tzippor, or small bird, which sits alone on the house-tops. The colour of this bird is a dark blue, whence it derives its popular name. Its habits exactly correspond with the idea of soli

ng the passage itself, which scarcely seems relevant to the occasion unless we understand its bearings. The context shows that our Lord was speaking

SH, OR SPARRO

alone upon the hous

ad learned the Chaldaic language from their captors. After their return to Palestine, the custom of publicly reading

doctor of the law whispered its meaning into the ear of a Targumista or interpreter, who repeated to the people in the Chaldaic language the explanation which the doctor had whispered

s used in a passage which has become very familiar to us. "Are not two sparrows so

irs of your head

an many sparrows." The same sentences are given

ignify any kind of small bird, though it is occasionally employed to signify even so large a creature as an eagle, provided that the bird had been mentioned beforehand. Conjoi

bodies of little birds. They are stripped of their feathers, and spitted together in rows, just as are larks in this country, and always have a large sale. Various birds are sold in this manner, little if any distinction being made between them, s

a considerable number can be caught at a time. Nets were employed for this purpose, and we may safely infer that the forms o

mployed in the East. The fowlers supply themselves with a large net supported on two sticks, and, taking a lan

ting-places are then beaten with sticks or pelted with stones, so as to awaken the sleeping birds. Startled by the sudden noise, they dash from their roosts, instinctively make tow

an do so by means of various traps, most of which are made on the principle of the noose, or snare. Sometimes a great number of hair-nooses are set in places to which the birds are decoyed, so that in hopping ab

after her straightway, as an ox goeth to the slaughter ... as a bird hasteneth to the snare, and knoweth not that it is for his life." There is one passage in Ecclesiastes, where both the fishing-net and the snare are mentioned in conn

diction rises by successive steps into sublimity: "Can a bird fall in a snare upon the earth, where

pon the Egyptians. Idols are called snares in many parts of the Scriptures, and so is the society of the wicked. A forcible use of this image was made by Saul when he found that his daughter Michal loved David: "And Saul said, I will give him her, that she may be a snare to him, and

v. 1-3, we come upon a passage in which the Sparrow is again

r the courts of the Lord; my heart and

w a nest for herself, where she may lay her young, ev

as the former bird was mentioned as an emblem of sorrow, solitude, and sadness, the latter is brought forward as an image of joy and happiness. "Blessed are they," proceeds the Psalmist, "that dwel

the wall, and walked along for some time, enjoying the fine view at the gorge of the Kedron, with its harvest crop of little white tombs. In a chink I discovered a sparrow's nest (Passer cisalpinus, var.) of a species so closely allied

OW, OR SPARROW

d an house, where she may l

ccept both these birds as representatives of the Sparrow which found a home in the Temple. The swallow is separately mentioned, possibly because its migratory habits rendered it a peculiarly conspicuous bird; but it is

. There is, for example, the common House Sparrow, with which we are so familiar. Then, as has just been descr

the Jordan valley, that he has seen the branches borne down by the weight of the nests. The same writer, in remarking upon the difficulty, not to say impossibility, of defining the precise bird which was signified by a Hebrew word, sa

was in all probability prevalent during the days when the various Scriptural books were written. Any of my readers who are familiar-as they ought to be-with that store-house of Oriental manners, the "Arabian Nights," will remember several allusions to birds kept

ioned, but in one case the word evidently has another mea

among my people are found wicked men: they lay wait, as

birds, so are their

are still employed in the East in bird-catching. One marginal reading gives the word as "coop." The whole of the context, however, show

e cannot definitely say that it represents a cage such as we understand by the word. There is, however, a passage in the Book of Job (xli. 5) which unmistakeably alludes to the custom of do

CU

-The common species, and the Great Spotted Cuckoo-Depositing the egg-Conjectures re

passages they are practically reduced to one. In Lev. xi. 16 we find it mentioned among the birds that might not be

etymology of the word gives us but little assistance. Shachaph is derived from a root that signifies leanness or slenderness; but it is not very

which possesses in Palestine the same habits as in England. It is rather remarkable, by the way, that the Arabic name for the bird is exactly the same as ours, the peculiar cry having supplied the name. Its habit of laying its eggs in t

T SPOTTE

nd the cuckoo, and the hawk after h

m the other Cuckoos because the feathers on the head are formed into a bold crest, in some species, such as Le Vaillant's Cuckoo, reminding the observer of the crest of the cockatoo. This fine bir

fact, that just as the egg of the English Cuckoo is very small, so as to suit the nests of the little birds in which it is placed,

ll events some marine bird. As such birds live on fish, they would necessarily come into the class

us sea-birds, he selects the petrel as the species which he thinks to have been signified by the word. This bird, as he says, is a very lean one, having many feathers, but very little flesh, so that its limbs are no larger than ol

given to a child as a playfellow, and that it is capable of being domesticated and liv

two species, the Great Shearwater (Puffinus cinereus) and the Manx Shearwater (Puffinus anglorum), both of which are extremely plentiful on the coast, skimming continually over the water, and being at the present day regarded by the

ikely that the word shachaph was used in a collective sense, as we have seen to be the case w

DO

f the Temple-Talmudical zoology-The story of Ilisch-The Dove and the raven-The Dove a type of Israel-The Beni-yonah, or Sons of Pigeons-Home-finding instinct of the pigeon-The Oriental Dove-cotes-Voice of

compressing the needful information into a reasonable space. There is no bird which plays a more import

milar occasions, the latter being in many instances permitted when the former were too expensive for the means of the offerer. As to the rendering of the Hebrew words which have been translated as Pigeon, Dove, and Turtle Dove, there has never

ed from a root signifying warmth, in allusion to the warmth of its affection, the Dove having from time immemorial been selected as the type of conjugal love. Others, among whom is Buxtorf, derive

reatures that are mentioned by any definite names, the word nachosh, which is translated as "serpent" in Gen. iii. 1, being a collective

f the ark in order that Noah might learn whether the floods had subsided, and that, after she had returned once, he sent her out again seven days afterwards, and that she retur

e sacrifice of Noah. Suffice it to say that, putting entirely aside all metaphor, the characters of the raven and the Dove are well contrasted. The one went out, and, though the trees were at that time submerged, it trusted in its strong wings, and hovered above the watery

it was counted to him for righteousness." In order to ratify this covenant he was ordered to offer a sacrifice, which consisted of a young heifer, a she-goat, a ram, a turtle-dove, and a young

with the prophecy that they should be "strangers in a land that was not theirs," and should be in slavery and under oppression for many

v. i. 14-17: "If the burnt sacrifice for his offering to the Lord be of fo

ng off his head, and burn it on the altar; and the blo

feathers, and cast it beside the altar, o

all not divide it asunder: and the priest shall burn i

portant variation in one or two portions of this passage. For example, the wringing off the head of the bird is, literally, pinching off, and had to be done with the thumb nail; and the passage which is by

s taken in this respect, that with the exception of the two "sparrows" (tzipporim) that were enjoined as part of the sacrifice by which the cl

then she shall bring two turtles, or two young pigeons, the one for the burnt-offering and the other for a sin-offering." The extraordinary value which all Israelites set upon the first-born son is well known, both parents even changing their own names, and being called respectively the father and mother of Elias, or Joseph, as the case may be. If the parent

the altar. But in process of time, when the nation had become a large and scattered one, its members residing at great distances, and only coming to the Temple once or twice in the year to

ose, and, as offerings of money could only be made in the Jewish coinage, money-changers established themselves for the purpose of exchanging foreign money brought from a distance for the legal Jewish shekel. That these people exc

ewish worship, the Talmudical writers have inve

eceptive, and thieving; while all the pigeon kind are mild, true, and loving. There is a curious story which illustrates this idea. A certain man named Ilisch, who understood the language of birds, was "once upon a time" in captivity, when he heard the cry o

em being very obscure and rather far-fetched. For example, of all birds the Dove is the most persecuted, being gentle, meek, and unable to resist. She cannot fight with her bea

flight. When other birds are tired, they sit down and fold their wings to rest. But the tired Dove never ceases her flight; but when one wing is fatigued, she allows it to rest, and continues

pirit. Probably on account of this anatomical peculiarity, the Dove was considered as the very pattern for married people, and the emblem of chastity, as it lives in the strictest monogamy, never desiring another mate. Unfortunately for these writers, the R

ld by St. Paul, in Heb. ix., even under the old dispensation, without shedding of blood there was no remission of sins, and he who desired to obtain that remission was obliged to shed the blood of the sacrific

was too poor even to have a dove-cote of his own might go to the rocky side of the ravines, and take as many young as he pleased from the

of Doves. The definition of this term is rather interesting, as it affords an excellent example of the hair-splitting character of these interpreters of the Law. Accordin

. If, on the contrary, blood followed the feathers, but the plumage of the neck exhibited a metallic lustre, it was reckoned as having passed the age of Beni-yonah. It

time, our familiarity with the variety of pigeon known as the Carrier has taught us that the eye is the real means employed by the pigeon for the direction of its flight. Those who fly pigeons for long di

of the entrance for some time, getting farther and farther away from the nest until it has learned the aspect of surrounding objects. The pigeon acts in

power possessed by birds of making their eyes telescopic at will, or of the enormous increase of range which the sight obtains by elevation. A pigeon at the elevation of several hundred yar

t fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their windows?" or, as the Jewish Bible translates the passage, "as the doves to their apertures?" In this passage the sacr

ar is the habitation of a pair of pigeons, and the whole principle of this dove-cote is exactly the same as that which was employed by the late Mr. Waterton in erecting the starling-houses in his

the pigeon-house must not be within fifty paces of cultivated ground belonging to any one except the owner of the pigeons. The reason for this prohibition was, that as the pigeon was known to be an exceedingly voracious bird, it

e brought up, and her maids shall lead her as with the voice of doves, taboring upon their breasts" (Nah. ii. 7). The Jewish Bible gives this passage in another and certainly a more forcible manner: "And Huzzab shall be uncovered and brought up, and her maids sha

a dove: mine eyes fail with looking upward" (xxxviii. 14). Also in

ROCK

in the clefts of the

ove's eyes" (i. 15). "His eyes are the eyes of doves by the rivers of waters, washed with milk, and fitly set" (v. 12). And in several other places the beloved is spoke

passage of the Psalms: "Though ye have lien among the pots, yet shall ye be as the win

s like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest. Lo, then would I wander far off, and remain in the wilderness" (Ps. l

ve in the rocks was known to the Scripture wri

her nest in the sides of the hole's mouth" (Jer. xlviii. 28). See also Ezek. vii. 16: "But they that escape of them sh

ranges are literally crowded with pigeons who have made their nests in the cavities.

clefts of the rock, in the secret places of the stairs, let me see thy countenance, let me hear thy voice." The Jewish Bible

ge in Hosea (vii. 11, 12): "Ephraim also is like a silly d

I will bring them down as the fowls of the heaven; I

hen Ben-hadad besieged Samaria, and tried to reduce it by starvation, the famine was so great in the city that "an ass'

ust have been most repulsive, it could not have been more so than the flesh of the ass, an animal which was strictly forbidden as food, and held as unclean. Moreover,

been killed and eaten long before the people were driven to such an extremity as to eat the flesh of their own children. It is far more probable that the "dove's-dung" was the name of a v

ous species of Pigeons

their infinite variety of colour and plumage. This species, though plentiful in Palestine, is not spread over the whole of the land, but lives chiefly on the coast and in the higher parts of the country. In these places it multiplies in amazing numbers, its inc

ock Dove, and has not the whitish plumage on the lower part of the back. This species is quite as numerous as the other, and builds in similar places. Mr. T

with a rush and a whirr that could be felt like a gust of wind. It was amusing to watch them upset the dignity and the equilibrium of the majest

ll imagine how great must have been the multitude of birds that would fairly turn the powerful griffon-vulture on its back. This description may be advantageously compared with the passage in Isa. lx. 8: "Who are these that fly as a cloud?" the sacred writer well kn

to which they are decoyed by a ve

ts eyelids together, and then fasten it to a perch among trees. The miserable bird utters plaintive cries, and continually flaps its wings, thus attracting ot

common species (Turtur auritus), with which we are so familiar in this country. The Hebrew word which is translated as Turtle, is t?r, a term

not the species of a Dove. There is but little doubt, however, that the word really does represent a species, and that the Turtle Dove is the bir

URTLE

rtle is heard in our

e is heard in our land" (Cant. ii. 11, 12). The prophet Jeremiah also refers to the migration of this bird: "Yea, the stork in the heaven knoweth her app

Turtur Senegalensis), so called from its habit of nesting on palm-trees, when it is obliged to build at a distance from the habitations of man. It is a gregarious bird, several nests being generally found on one tree, and even, when

inches in length, and having no "collar" o

UL

The eating and gathering of eggs-References to Poultry in the New Testament-The egg and the scorpion-The

e of the Apostles is evident from one or two references which are made by our Lord. How long the Domestic

Testament on the subject. A bird so conspicuous and so plentiful would certainly have been mentioned in the Law of Mos

t to a domesticated, but to a wild bird: "If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in any tree, or on the ground, whether they be young ones, or eggs, and the dams sitting upon the young, or u

ten without salt? or is there any taste in the white of an egg?" So in Isa. lix. 5: "The

h eggs that are left, have I gathered all the earth" (Isa. x. 14). The well-known passage in Luke xi. 11, 12, however, evidently refers to the ordinary hen's egg, which was used then for

an egg, will he of

Fowl. It occurs in 1 Kings iv. 22, 23, among the list of the daily provision of Solomon's household:

tures, and an hundred sheep, beside harts, an

from a root that signifies whiteness, or purity, it has been thought that the correct rendering would be "fattened white" (birds). Some

lomon had introduced into Palestine, together with various other birds and animals, by means of his fleet. There

MESTIC

her brood under her

over Jerusalem: "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and stonest them that are sent unto thee; how often would I have gathered thy children together, as a hen

remembered that in the time of Christ Jerusalem belonged practically to the Romans, who held it with a garrison, and who, together with other foreigners, would not trouble themselves about any such prohibition, which would seem to them, as it does to us, exceedingly puerile, not to say unj

our Lord is evident from the reference t

the Romans, which were marked by the blowing of trumpets, conventionally termed cock-crowings. There is, however, no necessity to search for a metaphorical meaning when the literal interpretation is clear and intelligible

PEAC

retations-Identity of the word with the Cingalese name of the Peacock-Reasons why th

d historian, after mentioning the ivory throne, the golden shields and targets, that all the vessels in Solomon's house were of gold, and that silver was so common as to be of no account, proceeds to give the reason for

. The Jewish Bible accepts the same translation as our own, and does not even affix the mark of doubt. Some He

sited by Solomon's ships. In the latter island are found all the three valuables which are mentioned in the above-quoted passage, and it is remarkable that the Cingalese name for the Peacock is so similar to the Hebrew w

PEAC

arshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivor

ve been selected which would have a more magnificent effect than the Peacock. Moreover, although unknown in Palestine, it is extremely plentiful in its native land, inhabiting the jungle by thousands, and, by a curious coincidence, being invariably most plent

while their surpassing beauty would render them sure of a sale on their arrival in Jerusalem. Indeed, their beauty made so great an impression tha

as not kept up, owing in all probability to the troubles w

PART

ts habits-Hunting the Partridge with sticks-Eggs of the Partridge-A disputed reading, and probable significati

ving an insight into the manners and customs of the scarcely changing East. This is the bird called in the Hebrew Kore, a word which has been generally accepted as signifyi

m the city and hide himself in the rocky valleys, he compared himself to the Partridge, which frequented exactly the

ally haunts rocky and desert places, and even at the present day is exceedingly plentiful about the Cave of Adullam. The males, when they think themselves unobser

rocky cleft in which it may hide itself, taking care to interpose, as it runs, stones or other obstacles between itself and the object of its alarm. Thus

out sticks about eighteen inches in length, and, armed with these, they chase the birds, hurling the sticks one after the other along the ground, so as to strike the Partridge as it runs. Generally, several hunters chase the same bird, some of them throwing the sticks a

EEK PA

n the mountains.

re active on the wing than the Partridge. I have seen snipe killed in the New Forest by being hunted down with sticks. Squirrels are

the hill-sides, and, like that bird, his final refuge is the rock. Then came the hunters and pursued him, driving him from place to place, as

l." The marginal reading of this passage gives the sense in a slightly different form, and commences the verse as follows: "As the partridge gathereth (young) which she hath not brought forth, so he," &c. The Jewish Bible gives the whole passage rathe

o the number of unborn, i.e. unhatched, eggs on which the Partridge sits, but which are so often taken from her before they can be hatched. Just as hunting the Partridge is

s, more than twenty being sometimes found in a single nest. These eggs are used for food, and the consumption of them is

ntioned. It is beautifully, though not brilliantly, coloured, and may be known by the white spot behind the eye, the pur

ng species, and is more widely spread. It is a large bird of its kind, being much larger than our Eng

may be included among the number of the birds which are included under the common name of Kore. The latter bird is e

QU

ng the birds around the camp-Migration of the Quail-Drying the Quails for food-Modes of catching the Quail in the East-The Quail-h

found a word which has been translated in

ce; namely, the providing of flesh-meat in the wilderness, where the people could find no food. As the pa

Moses had led them, and openly said that they wished they had never left the land of their slavery, where they had plenty to eat. According to His custom, pitying the

spake unto M

QU

and He brought qu

hem, saying, At even ye shall eat flesh, and in the morning ye shall

even the quails came up, and c

gain wished themselves back in Egypt. "And there went forth a wind from the Lord, and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp, as it were a

and they gathered the quails: he that gathered least gathered ten homers; and the

wonders done on behalf of the Israelites, and among them is specially mentioned this gift of the Quails a

ied with the wind, thus agreeing with the statement that the Selavim were brought by the wind. Others have imagined that the Selavim were flying-fish, blown on shore as they rose from the sea a

ouds from above, and ope

pon them to eat, and had giv

' food: He sent the

in the heaven; and by His powe

st, and feathered fowls like as the s

"fowls of wing," according to the literal sense of the Hebrew; so that the theory that they were insects or fish

or example, take it to be the white stork, which is very plentiful in Palestine, and sometimes flies in such numbers that the sky is darkened as the winged host passes by. They base this supposition on

ainly do not refer to the stature of the individual birds. They are popularly taken to sig

, there would have been no need of gathering them up, as they would have lain so thickly on the ground that the only trouble would have been to make a passage th

urney on the other side of the camp," i.e. some eight or ten miles all round it, there would have been no space whereon the birds could have been spread. The sentence in question has a totally d

ing weak-winged birds, never fly against the direction of the wind. They will wait for days until the wind blows in the required direction

very low elevation, merely skimming over the ground, barely a yard or "two cubits high upon the face of the earth." We may now

at the Almighty would have neutralized His own edicts by providing food which the Israelites were forbidden to eat. In the next place, even had the flesh of the stork been lawful, it

it is a strong-winged and swift-footed bird, and would not have satisfied the required conditions. It flies high in the air, instead of merely skimming over the ground, and when it alights is fresh and active, and cannot easily be caught. T

Selav is to be found in the mode in which the flesh is prepared at the present day. As soon as the birds have arrived, they are captured in vast multitudes, on account of their weariness. Many are consumed at onc

d almost exactly resembling selav to represent the Quail. The word

Quail to be identical, we may proc

Arab name, which signifies plumpness or fatness. The wings are pressed closely to the body, and the tail is pointed, very short,

ural narrative takes no notice. One very simple plan is, for the hunters to select a spot on which the birds are assembled, and to ride or walk round them in a large circle, or rather in a constantly d

round the Quails, they approach simultaneously from opposite points, and then circle round them until the birds are supposed

ses or cloaks. Making choice of some spot as a centre, where a quantity of brushwood grows or is laid down, the men surround it on all sides, and move slowly towards it, spreading their cloaks i

shwood, fling their cloaks over it, and so enclose the birds in a trap from which they cannot escape. Much care is required in this method of hunting, lest the birds should take to flight, and so escape. The circle is therefore made of very great size,

he most ingenious of which is a kind of trap, the door

ye can scarcely distinguish a single bird, though there may be hundreds within a very small compass. Fortunately for the hunters, and unfortunately for its

is very combative, and generally fights a battle for the possession of each of its many mates. It is not gifted with such weapons of offence

tching the combats of the larger animals, they have Quail-fights in their own chambers. The birds are selected for this purpose, and are intentionally furnished with stimulating food, so as to render them even

s. lxxviii. 26. The Psalmist mentions that the Lord "caused an east wind to blow in the heaven, and by His power He brought in the sou

hey had to pass. Passing northwards in their usual migrations, the birds would come to the coast of the Red Sea, and there would wait until a favourable wind

acter of the bird. In Exod. xvi. 13 it is mentioned that "at even the quails came up and covered the camp." Nocturnal flight is one of the characteristics of the Quail. Wh

cal corroboration, we could have but little doubt on the subject. There is not a detail which is not correct. The gregarious instinct of the bird, which induces it to congregate in vast numbers; its habit of migration; its inability to fly against the wind, and the necessity for it to await

were unacquainted with the natural history of the bird have represented the whole occurrence as a miraculous one, and have classed it with the division of the Red Sea

migration or customary travel from south to north, and waiting on the opposite side of the narrow sea for a south-east wind. That such a wind should blow was no miracle. The Quails expected it to blow, and without it they could not have crossed the sea. That it was made to blow earlier than might have been the case is likely enough, but that is the extent of th

RA

-The white Raven of ancient times-An old legend-Reference to the blackness of the Raven's plumage-Desert-loving habits of the Raven-Its mode of attacking the eye-Notions of the old commentators-Ceremonial

lso used by the Jews in a much looser sense, and served to designate any of the Corvid?, or Crow tribe, such as the raven itself, the crow, the roo

entiful in Palestine, and even at the present time is apparently as firmly es

ich its name occurs are comparatively few. It is the first bird which is mentioned in the Scriptures, its name occurring

nt forth to and fro, until the water

gain. The Raven, on the contrary, would find plenty of food in the bodies of the various animals that had been drowned, and were floating on the surface of the waters, and, therefore, needed not to enter again into the ark. The context shows that it made the ark a resting-place, and that it "went forth to and f

RA

the raven his foo

f the bird. This occurs in 1 Kings xvii. When Elijah had excited the anger of Ahab by prophesying three years of drought, he was divinely ordered to take refuge by the

rd of the Lord: for he went and dwelt by

sh in the morning, and bread and flesh in

hem daily a supply of food for his sustenance. The repetition of the words "bread and flesh" shows that the sacred writer had no intention of signifying a mere casual finding of food which the Ravens brought for their

s which came to the brook for water. Others have thought that the Orebim were the inhabitants of a village called Orbo, near the Cherith. There is, however, no need of any such explanations. The account of the prophet's flig

ssage is rendered rather differently and more forcibly in the Jewish Bible. "Who provideth for the raven his food, when his young ones cry unto God, and wander for lack of meat?" A passage of similar import occurs in Ps. cxlvii. 9: "He giveth to the beast his fo

reover, the bird was thought to be peculiarly late in attaining its plumage, the young Ravens must all die of hunger, were they not fed in some remarkable manner. This subject is treated at some length by Luis of Grenada in his Sermons. As the pas

IV. post Pe

enti? et providenti? su? argumenta hoc etiam commemoraret, cum ad Job ait: 'Quis pr?parat corvo escam suam, quando pulli ejus clamant

s adhuc sunt, candorem pr? se ferre: ideoque a parentibus ut nothos negligi, quod eorum non referant colorem. Quo tempore divina providentia, qu? nusquam dormit, eos ad se clamantes a

ejus obsequio cuncta militant, si omnia rerum conditor subiecit pedibus ejus oves et boves universas, insuper et pecora campi, &c. qui fieri potest ut cum hujus mundi moderator D?s nullum neque animalculum neque vermiculum a providenti? su? cura excludat, sed omnibus abunde omnia suppeditat, pium hominem (cujus obsequio cuncta destinavit) fame et inedia confici p

day after Pente

rd, among other tokens of His wisdom and providence, had selected this also, when He saith in Job: 'Who provideth for the raven his food? when his young

nfledged do appear of whiteness, and therefore are neglected of their parents as if they were bastards, seeing that they resemble not their colour. At which time Divine Providence, who nowhere sleepeth, doth feed them who call upon Himself. For He cau

the fairest of things; if he alone be made illustrious by God's image; if he himself be of this great family the leader and lord; if in obedience to him all things serve; if the Constructor of all things hath put under his feet 'all sheep and oxen, yea, and the beasts of the field;' how shall

ntly with all things needful, how should He suffer His sons to perish whose families He cherisheth and feedeth with so great care? Who, indeed, cou

at the worms crawled into the mouths of the young Ravens, so

disposition and deceitful conduct. A similar idea was held by the old mythological writers. They said that the Raven was formerly the favourite bird of Apo

g Raven snatched up a snake, killed it, and brought it to Apollo, saying that the serpent had disputed the passage to the fountain, and that, after a long fight, it had just been k

exclaimed

ller, as from

arted, 'Me woul

ched tale! Hence

sehood fly throu

ely night! Du

melody: henc

es and horrors

ess and

Quarterly

e is made in the Song of Solomon. "My beloved is

re bushy and black as a Raven." (Cant. v. 10, 11

eared from the greater part of England, and is seldom to be seen except on wide moors or in large forests. Culti

ve, should wish to see one of the birds, he has only to lie flat on the ground, and keep his eyes nearly shut, so as only to see through the lashes. Should there be a Raven within many miles, it is sure to discover the apparently

be dead; and if it should still possess life, it would be blinded for the moment, so as to allow its assailant to escape. The Scriptures note this custom of the Raven, as w

and the bittern shall possess it; the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it: an

f the Raven as given by the write

by long and sharp iron spikes set so closely together that there was no room for the bird to pass between them. The latter is by far the more probable account, as the Raven is much too cunning

bodies, not only of dead animals, but of warriors killed in battle. So fond was the Raven of this food that, according to those writers, the very smell of human blood att

e ceremonial law of the Jews required the greatest care in observing certain hours, and it was especially necessary to know the precise time which marked the separation of one day from

break the law by doing on one day an act which ought to have been done on another. A convenient method for ascertaining the time was, howe

t the same time is mentioned by Mr.

. On the evening of our arrival we were perplexed by a call-note, quite new to us, mingling with the old familiar croak, and soon ascertained that there must be a second species of raven alo

r our tents every morning at daybreak, and returning in the evening, the rooks in solid phalanx leading the way, and the ravens in loose order bringing up the rear, generally far out of shot. Before retiring for the night, pop

Moslems, and provoke an attack by the guardians of the Haram and the boys of the neighbourhood. They finally determined, nevertheless, to run the risk; and stationing themselves just before sunset in convenient hiding-places near the walls, at a given

but on the third occasion the ravens had learned wisdom by experience

n appreciate this anecdote, and can understand how the Raven would ever afterwar

ner to lay a train of corn for the sparrows to eat, and then to rake the whole line with a discharge from a gun concealed in an outhouse. A tame Raven lived about the premises, and as soon as it saw any one carrying a gun towards the f

d towers, the interior of caves, and clefts in lofty precipices. The nest is large and clumsy, and the bird, trusting in the inaccessible character of the locality, troubles itself very little about

signified by the word oreb. Sometimes they drew a distinction between them, but,

lty, he was called a Magpie-man by way of derision. Similarly, a man of a morose or evil disposition was termed a Raven-hearted man. As, however, the Magpie is not entirely black, but has some white in its plumage, it was

e old writers had no very great opinion of this bird, which they considered as exceptionally quarrelsome, probably on account of its shrill, harsh cry

nd respecting the introduction

ation, in order that he might decide whether it belonged to the clean or the unclean birds. After examining it, he co

kind would recognise the stranger, until at last there came a Raven from Egypt, which claimed acquaintance with it. In consequence of this, the Starling was ever afterwards classed wi

OSTR

them in the sand-Natural enemies of the Ostrich-Anecdote of Ostriches and their young-Alleged stupidity of the Ostrich-Methods of hunting and snaring the bird-The Ostrich in domesticati

y three times, but in the Hebrew it occurs eight times. If the reader will refer to page 370, he will see that the Hebrew word bath-haya'nah, which is translated in the Authorized Version as "owl," ought really to be rendered as "Ostrich.

passage of Deut. xiv., in which the Ostrich is reckoned among the unc

t preciseness and fulness of description which is so often the case

unto the peacocks? or wings

in the earth, and wa

t may crush them, or that th

ones, as though they were not hers:

r of wisdom, neither hath He

on high, she scorneth the horse

," while the word which is translated as "Ostrich" ought to have been given as "feathers." The marginal translation gives the last words of ver. 13 in a rather different ma

m them in dust; and forget that the foot may crush

g ones, for those not hers; being

ein this bird is mentioned. "I went mourning without

translates as "jackals." Of this point we shall have something to say on a future page. A somewhat similar passage occurs in Isa. xliii. 20: "The beast of the field shall honour me, the dragons and the owls" (Ostriches in margi

Ostriches, let us see how far the passages of Scrip

Among much that is strictly and completely true, there are occasional errors, to which a most needless attention has been drawn by a certain school of critics, who poi

y, mathematics, zoology, or any such branch of knowledge. The references which are made to the last-mentioned subject are in no case of a scientific nature, but are

the dress, arms, and inventions of the present day. The Scriptures were written in Eastern lands for Orientals by Orientals, and were consequently adapted to Oriental ideas; and it would be a

e who had made zoology the study of their lives, we cannot wonder that it was also unknown to thos

s of the Scriptures, and the more so when we remember the character of the Oriental mind, with i

n as fastened to the heads of the horses, and also in the form of a plume, fixed to the end of a staff, and appended to a chariot, as emblematical of the princely rank of the occupier. In the ancient Egyptian monuments these Ostrich plumes are repeatedly shown, and

ird that is careless of its eggs, and leaves them "in the earth, and warmeth them in the

e persons this fact has been brought forward as a proof that the writer of the Book of Job was mistaken in his statements. A further acquaintance with the habits of the bird tell

shining, they simply cover the eggs with sand, so as to conceal them from ordinary enemies, and leave them to be hatched by the warm sunbeams. They are buried to the depth of about

cription that eggs which are buried a foot deep in the sand could not be crushed by the foot, even were they of a fragile character, instead of being defe

CH AN

e earth, and warmeth them i

ft carelessly on the surface of the ground, and may easily be crushed by the hoof of a horse, if not by the foot of man. We meet, however, with another statement,-namely, that they may be broken by the wild beasts. Here we have reference to another fact in the history of the Ostrich. The scattered eggs, to which allusion is made, are often eaten, not only by beasts, but also by birds of prey; the former breaking the shell

: "She is hardened against her young ones, as though they were not hers." Now in the Jewish Bible the passage is rendered rather differently: "She is

otion was shared by the writer of the Book of Job is evident from the preceding passage. It also, prevailed for at least a thousand years after the Book of Job was written. Se

ft behind by their parents, and fall a prey to the hunters. But, in reality, the Ostrich has no choice in the matter. The wide sandy desert affords no place of concealment in which it might hide its young. Nature ha

, in order to draw the attention of its pursuers, while its young escape in another direction. An instance of this practice is given by Mr. Andersson in his "Lake Ngami." "When we had proceeded little more than half the distance, and in a part of

of their progeny. Finding that we were quickly gaining upon them, the male at once slackened his pace and diverged somewhat from his course; but, seeing that we were not to be diverted from our purpose, he again increased his speed, and, with wings drooping so as almost to touch

female, who by this time was considerably ahead with her charge." Nor is this a solitary instance of the care which the Ostrich will take of her young. Thunberg mentions that on one occasion, when he happened to ride near a place wher

ed by their colour as long as they are comparatively helpless. Their downy plumage harmonizes completely with the sandy and stony ground, even when they run, and when they crouch to the earth, as is their manner when alarmed

ing to one brood. In the Ostrich chase which has already been described, the brood were eighteen in number, and so great was their speed

ing its young, much more of cruelty towards them; and we will

approaching. Its nostrils are very sensitive, and can detect a human being at a very great distance. So fastidious is it in this respect, that no hunter who knows his business ever attempts to ap

hoot the Ostrich, disguised in a skin of one of the birds. Should an Ostrich attack him, as is sometimes the case, he only shift

em goes round by a long detour to frighten the game, the others are in waiting at a considerable distance to windward, but well on one side, so that no indication of their presence may reach the sensitive nostrils of the birds. As soon as the concealed hunters see the Os

ould otherwise be unable to overtake it. But it must be remembered that instinct cannot be expected to prove a match for reason, and that, although its human enemie

about their tents, the birds being as much accustomed to their quarters as the horses. In all probability they did so in a

been known to swallow bullets hot from the mould. On dissecting the digestive organs of an Ostrich, I have found a large quantity of stones, pieces of brick, and scraps of wood. These articles are, however, not intended to serve as food

h: "What time she lifteth up herself on hi

apidity, covering at each stride an average of twenty-four feet, a fact from which its rate of speed may be deduced. In consequence of this width of stride, and the small impression made in the sand by the two-toed foot, the track of a running Ostrich is very obscure. Perhaps no better proof of the swiftness of the bird

pply of water, and then start in pursuit of the first flock of Ostriches they find. They take care not to alarm the birds, lest they should put out their full speed and run away out of sight, but just keep sufficiently n

strength, and the other end is then formed into a noose and fastened down with a trigger. Sometimes the bird is enticed towards the snare by means of a bait, and sometimes it is driven over it by the huntsmen.

nounce it to be excellent when the bird is young and tender, but to be unpleasantly tough when it is old. Mr. Andersson says that its flesh resembles that of the zebra, and mentions that the fat and blood are in great request, being mixe

rved at his table containing six hundred Ostrich brains, and that another emperor ate a whole Ostrich at a mea

ary hen's eggs. Cooking the Ostrich egg is easily performed. A hole is made in the upper part of the egg, and the lower end is set on the fire. A forked stick is then introduced into the e

e bird should be able to procure sufficient food to maintain its enormous body. Each of the specimens which are kept at the Zoological Gardens eats on an average a pint of barle

king in the water by a succession of gulps. When the weather has been exceptionally hot, the Ostrich visits the water-springs daily, and is so occupied in quenching its thirst that it will allow the hunter to come wi

language the Ostrich is called by a name which signifies camel-bird, and many of

sed by the fact that both the lion and Ostrich utter their cry by night. It is evidently to this cry that the prophet Micah alludes: "Therefore I will wail and howl, I will go stripped and naked: I will make a wailing like the dragons, and mourning as the owls" (Ostric

and powerful legs can be employed as weapons, and it can kick with such force that a man would go down before the blow, and probably, if struck on the leg or arm, have the limb broken. The blow is never delivered backward, as is the kick of the h

BITT

n in its haunts-Mudie's description of the Bittern and its home-The strange cry of the bird-Superstitions connected with it-The

rn," is in all probability the Syrian hedgehog, and that the Jewish Bible accepts that rendering without even affixing the mark of doubt to the word. A

shes, though it is a large bird, it is scarcely visible even to a practised eye, its mottled plumage harmonizing with surrounding objects in such a way that the feathers of the bird can scarcely be distinguished from the sticks, stones, and grass tufts among which it sits. The ground colour o

cted, its striped fur corresponding with the reeds themselves and the shadows thrown by them; and the leopard can re

BITT

ssion for the bittern, and p

ng won to usefulness, the bittern is the first to depart, and when any one is abandoned, it is the last to return. 'The bittern shall dwell there' is the final curse, and implies that the place is to become uninhabited and uninhabitable, it hears not the whistle

fertile mould which the rains wash and the winds blow from the naked heights around, and converting it into harsh and dingy vegetation, and the p

r than the sapless and tasteless cranberry or the weeping upland willow; which shed murrain over the quadrupeds, chills which eat the flesh off their bones,

lest that death which he comes to seal and riot upon in others should unawares come upon himself. The raven loves carrion on the dry and unpoisoning moor, scents it from afar, and hastens to it upon his best

it crouches. It will not be tempted to leave its retreat by noise, or even by stone throwing, for it k

the breeding season it utters the cry by which it summons its mate, one of the strangest love-calls that can be imagined. It is something between the neighing of a horse, the bellow of a bull, and a shriek of savage laughter. It is very loud and deep, so that it seems to shake the loose and marshy ground. There was formerly an idea

distance, has been dreaded as the prophecy of some evil to come. In some parts both of England and Ireland it is known as the Night-rave

ht-raven's

s tremble,

nimbly, da

oes of a h

e,-they considered it as the presage of some sad event, and generally found or made one to succeed it. I do not speak ludicrously, but if any person in the neighbourhood die

by the odd title of Butter-bump, a fact which

r be rain, or e

mp sings upo'

called Bog-bluiter, i.e. Bog-bleater, just

ive bird. Next minute it will sink its head in its shoulders, so that the long beak seems to project from them, and the neck totally disappears, the feathers enveloping each other as perfectly and smoothly as if it never had had a neck. In this attitude it will stand for an hour at a tim

CORM

the bittern shall posse

d rise by reason of a severe rain. There is, however, but little reason for the Bittern to fear a flood, as at the time of year which is chosen, for nest-building the floods are g

y connected with it holds good, and that no more powerful figure could be imagined for the desolation of B

e as completely extinct in England as the bustard or the eagle. Even the great marshes of Essex are being reclaimed and rendered unfit for the occupation of the bird; and, from the upper part of the house where this account is written, I can see with the aid of the telescope cornfields, and pasture-lands, and barns, and ri

he ebb tide. By the abstraction of the moisture, the whole country has been lowered more than a foot, and, together with the stagnant pools, the Bittern has vanished never more to return. And here it may be mentioned that, although the Bittern inhabits none but desolate places, it only se

the Thames. Should the time come when London will have passed away as completely as the great cities of old, and the banks of the Thames lie as d

nlike its relatives the heron and the stork, which are peculiarly sociable, and love to gather themselves together in multitu

to capture tolerably large fish. Though the Bittern is only about two feet in total length, one of these birds was killed, in the stomach of which were found one perfect rudd eight inches in length and two in depth, together with the remains of another fish, of a full-grown frog,

rtly on account of a popular prejudice, it is never eaten at the present day, and those few specimens which are occasionally exposed for sale are merely purchased

HE

bird, and its mode of feeding-Its enormous appetite-How the Heron fights-Ancient falconry-Nesting of the Heron-The papyrus marshes

the two parallel passages of Lev. xi. 19 and Deut. xiv. 18; in both of whic

the Heron as food is not that it is unfit for the table, but that it has become so scarce by the spread of cultivation and house-building, that it has been gradually abandoned as a practically unattainable article of diet. The flesh of

HE

mination among the fowls ... the stork, th

n judgment confirmed by that of others, he had several of them trussed and dressed like wild geese, and served up at table under that name. The guests approved greatly of the bird, and compared it to hare, the resemblance being further increased by the dark colo

here were several other species of the bird, as is implied by the language of the law, which prohibited the Heron "after her kind." The Egrets are probably included in this category; and, if the word kippod be really the hedge

gs on Egyptian monuments, in which various species of Herons and other water-birds are depicted as li

he birds were fond of wading stealthily along the edge of the lake until they came to a suitable spot, where they would stand immersed in the water up to the thighs, waiting patiently for their prey. They stood as still as if they were carved out of woo

cumstances it leaves the water, with the fish in its mouth, and beats it violently against a stone so as to kill it. Now and then the bird is vanquished in the struggle by the fish,

el which was much too large for it, and had been nearly choked by its meal. The eel must necessarily have been a very large one, as the Heron has a wonderful capacit

hich, though very inferior to man in point of bulk, can eat four times as much at a meal. Even though the fish be much larger in diameter than the neck of the bird, the Heron can sw

atching their prey in full daylight, when the sunbeams were playing in the water so as to p

t feeds largely on the shrimps, prawns, green crabs, and various other crustacea; and when it lives far inland, it still makes prey of the fresh-water shrimps, the water-beetles, and the b

roke with such rapidity that the foe is generally blinded before perceiving the danger. When domesticated, it has been known to keep possession of the enclosure in which it lived, and soon to drive away

times the bird takes to ascending in a spiral line, and then the flight is as beautiful as it is strong. Whe

being as fond of society as the rook. In England the heronries are invariably found in clumps of trees, the nests of the birds being quite close together. In some parts of Palestine, however, where trees are very scarce

nary bog, which takes one up to one's knees in water; then, after half a mile, a belt of deeper swamp, where the yellow water lily (Nuphar lutea) flourishes; then a belt of tall reeds; the open water covered with white water-lily (Nymph?a alba); and bey

act, the whole is simply a floating bog of several miles square; a very thin crust of vegetation covers an unknown depth of water; and, if the explorer breaks through this, suffocation is imminent. Some of the Arabs, who were tilling the plain for cotton, assured us that ev

e papyrus, which at the present day is used for the manufacture of baskets, mats, sandals, and for the thatching of houses. Many tribes which inhabit the banks of the Nile make simpl

he land shadowing with wings, whic

survived from very ancient times, we might find a difficulty in understanding this passage, while the meaning is intelligible enough when it is viewed by the light of

hich our word "paper" is derived, is nothing more than a Latinized form of the old Arabic name "babeer." It is never found except in muddy and swampy places such as those wh

cial swamps in which that plant is sown. The colour of the Egret is pure white, with the exception of the train. This consists of a great number of long slender feathers of a delicate straw colour. Like those which form the train of the peacock, they fall over the feathers of the tail, and entirely conceal them. The train of the Egret is highly valued in the East, brushes being made of them wherewith flies can be driven away, or delicate articles dusted. As the

CR

ird once plentiful in the fen districts of England-Its favourite roosting-places-Size of the Crane, and measurement of the

erring to its voice, and the other to its migratory instinct. The first passage occurs in Isa. xxxviii. 14: "Like a crane or swal

efer to the original of these passages, we shall find that the former of them would run thus, "Like a sis or an agur" and the latter thus, "The turtle and the sis and the agur." That in these passages the interpret

CR

so did I chatter."

ht to be common, but in that country the word Crane is simply a popular misnomer for the heron. As is the case with many wild birds, especially those of the larger kinds, the Crane appears to have bee

rom Acts of Parliament in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., in which reigns the taking of a Crane's egg was punished with a fine of twenty pence, in those days a considerable sum, being nearly four times the average

height, whence their trumpet-like cry is audible for a great distance round, and attracts the ear if not the eye to them. Thus we ha

es the night. When evening approaches, the Cranes may be seen in large flocks passing to their roosting-places, and, on account of their great size, having a very strange effect. A fair-sized Cra

ch might serve to conceal an enemy. The locality most favoured by the Crane is a large, smooth, sloping bank, far from any spot wherein an enemy may be concealed. The birds keep a careful watch during the night, and it is impossible for any foe t

substances. Sometimes it is apt to get into cultivated grounds, and then does much damage to the crops, pecking up the ground

ves at the present day. The two facts, that it was once comparatively plentiful and that it was highly valued for the table, are shown by an old record of the banquet following the enthronization of an Archbishop of Canter

ss and as brushes or flappers wherewith to drive off the flies. By reason of this conformation, some systematic zoologists have thought that it has some affinity to the ostrich, the rh?a, and s

ures, is caused by a peculiar structure of the windpipe, which is exceedingly long, and, instead of going s

osiers or reeds, and it lays only two eggs, pale olive i

ST

identification with the Stork-Derivation of its Hebrew name-The Stork always protected-Uses of the tail-Its mode of quartering the ground in searc

unclean creatures: "And the stork, the heron after her kind, and the lapwing, and the bat." The parallel passage in Deut. xiv. 18 has precisely the same words. Next we have the passage in Job xxxix. 13: "Gavest thou t

nests: as for the chasidah,

asidah in the heaven knoweth her appointed times; and the turtle and the crane and the sw

and, behold, there came out two women, and the wind was in their wings; (for they had wings

find out what particular bird is meant by the Chasidah. It is evident from the passage in Jeremiah that it is a migratory bird; from that in the Psalms, that it builds its nest upon a fir-tree; and from

r different translations, reading it as "heron" in one place, "pelican" in another, "hoopoe" in another, and in the fourth instance leaving

is perfectly correct; and it is followed by the Jewish

from chesed, a word that signifies benevolence. This word is used in many familiar passages; such as, "u

in their old age: they allow them to rest their necks on their bodies during migration, and, if the elders are tired, the young ones take them on their backs." According to others,

of snakes, insects, and garbage, the Stork has always been protected through the East, as it is to the present day in several parts of Europe. The slaughter of a Stork, o

ting for the offal of fish, fowls, and the like, which are simply thrown on the ground for the Storks to eat. In Eastern lands the Stork enjoys similar privileges, and we may

of a definite amount of ground. By this mode of proceeding, the ground is rapidly cleared of all vermin; the Storks examining their allotted space with the keenest scrutiny, and devouring every reptile, mouse, worm, grub, or in

eathers of the wings are black; so that the effect of the spread wings is very striking, an adult bird measuring about seven feet across, when flying. As the body, large though it may be, is co

the migratory ha

round. The same pair are sure to return to their well-known home, notwithstanding the vast distances over which they pass, and the many lands in which they sojourn. Should one of the pair die, the othe

d, and when they arrive the absentees are welcomed on all sides. In many countries breeding-places are specially provided f

ter, but the bird seems to care little whether this platform be on rocks, buildings, or trees. If, for example, it builds its nest in craggy places, far from the habitations of

r towers, the summits of arches, and similar localities. When it takes up its abode among mankind, it generally selects the breeding-

sociable in its nesting, a whole community residing in a clump of trees. It is not very particular about the kind of tree, provided that it be tolerably tall, an

ich is in some cases translated as "fir," is in some rendered as "pine-tree," in others as "juniper," and in others as "cypress." In the present case it is undoubtedly translated rightly, though in the Je

ST

he fir-trees are her

ce, a timber which was evidently held in the greatest estimation. This tree fulfils all the conditions which a Stork would require in nest-building. It is lofty, and its boughs are sufficiently horizontal to form a platform for the nest, and strong enough to sus

y, each species flourishing in the soil best suited to it, so that the Stork would never be at a

l, and is scarcely more than a huge quantity of sticks, reeds, and similar substances, heaped together, and having in the middle a slight depression in whic

, while their large beaks are ever gaping for food. Those of my readers who have had young birds of any kind must have noticed the extremely grotesque appearance which they possess when they hold up their heads and cry

ung, in that point fully deserving the derivation of its Hebrew name, thou

ung might often be seen from a little distance, surveying the prospect from their lonely height, but whenever any of the human party happened to stroll near the tower, one of the old storks, invisible before, would instantly appear, and, lighting on the nest, put its feet gent

only sound produced by the Stork, which is an ab

articular, except that it has a dark head and back, the feathers being glossed with purple and green like those of the magpie. This species, which is undoubtedly included in the Hebrew word chasidah, always makes its nest on trees whenever it can find them, an

og. Its tameness enabled its proceedings to be closely watched, and its mode of feeding was thereby investigated. It was fond of examining the rank gra

o some dry place, and then disabled its prey by shaking and beating it against the ground before swallowing it, whereas many birds that feed on fish swallow their prey as soon as it is caught. The Stork was nev

its lungs, and nodding its head repeatedly. After the manner of Storks, it always chose an elevated spot on which to repose, and took its rest standing on one leg, with its head so

voids the neighbourhood of houses, and lives in the most retired places it can find. It may generally be seen in marshy grounds, spen

SW

e Hyacinthine Gallinule-A strange use for the bird-The White or Sacred Ibis-The bird mentio

After stating (Lev. xi. 13) that "these are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination," the sacred lawgiver

ng of the Authorized Version. The Swan is far too rare a bird in Palestine to have been specially mentioned in the law of Moses, and in all probability it was totally unknown to t

o opinion whatever of the proper rendering of the word. The Septuagint translates the Tinshemeth as the Porphyrio or Ibis, and the Vulgate follows the same rendering

INULE (SWAN O

eat ... the little owl, and the great

ts on the surface of the water as firmly as if they were treading on land. Their feet are also used, like those of the parrots, in conveying food to the mouth. We have in England a very familiar example of the Gallinules in the common water-hen, or moor-hen,

ng a turquoise hue on the head, neck, throat, and breast, and deep indigo on the back. The large bi

hat of a duck, render it very conspicuous. The large and powerful bill of this bird betokens the nature of its food, which consists almost entirely of hard vegetable substances, the seeds of aquatic herbag

t is mostly found in shallow marshes, where the construction of its feet enables it to traverse both the soft muddy ground and the patches of firm earth with equal ease. Its

hat of the coot. The nest, too, resembles that of the coot, being composed of reeds, sedges, and othe

prized by the men and hated by the women. There was a popular idea about the bird that it always detected any infidelity on the part of the female

most conspicuous, and therefore, if either of the Gallinules be the Tinshemeth of the

btedly be the White or Sacred Ibis (Ibis religiosa), a bird which derives its name of Sacred from the reverence with which it was held by the ancient Egyptians, and the frequency with which its figure occurs

ood deal of superstition. Having heard of the relics of some winged serpents near the city of Buto, he went to see them. "When I arrived there I saw bones and spines of serpents, i

Egypt. It is reported that, at the beginning of spring, winged serpents fly from Arabia towards Egypt; but that the ibises, a sort of bird, meet them at the pass, and do not allow the serpen

t with the serpents. But those that are commonly conversant among men (for there are two species) are bare on the head and the whole neck; have white plumage, except on the head, the throat, and the tips o

t Herodotus has given a very fair account of two species of Ibis,-namely, the Glossy or Green Ibis

e of health. It has, however, a large geographical range, being found both in Northern Africa and Southern America. It derives its popular name from the rich gloss

and gold, that it alters its hue with every change of light. At a little distance the deep green plumage look

upon snakes, seeming to restrict itself to molluscs and similar food; and, on account of this discrepancy with the account given by Herodotus, many writers have doubted whether it could really be the bird meant by that historian and traveller. But we must remember that, thoug

aw. It is about as large as an ordinary hen, and, as its name imports, has the greater part of its plumage white, the ends of the wing-feathers and the coverts being black, with viole

ver as sacred to the old Egyptians as the Ganges to the modern Hindoo. As soon as the water begins to rise, the Ibis makes its appearance, sometimes alone, and sometimes in small troops. It haunts the banks of the river, and marshy places in

CORM

the Cormorant-The bird trained to catch fish-Mode of securing its prey-

es, there is no doubt that in two of the passages the Hebrew word ought to have been ren

a bird is evident from the context, and we are therefore only left to discover what sort of bird it may be. On looking at the etymology of the word we find that

the word is rendered by Catarrhactes, a term that has the same derivation in Greek as the Shalak in Hebrew. It is indeed the sam

eight. This bird, however, although it certainly answers completely to the sense of the word shalak, is not common enough on the shores of Palestine to be specially mentioned among the unclean birds. Oth

the Authorized Version. The Hebrew Bible gives the same reading, and does not affix the mark of doubt to the word, though there are very few of the lo

ween them being evident to the most unpractised eye; and the whole struct

fly with tolerable speed, while at the same time they can be closed so tightly to the body that they do not hinder the progress of the bird through the water; while the tail serves equally when spread to direct its course through the air, and when partially or entirely closed to act as a rudder in the water. Lastly, its short powerful legs, with their

fish, and bring them ashore for its master. So adroit are they, that if one of them should catch a fish which is too heavy for it another bird will come to its assistance, and the two together will bring the struggling p

Holland, and thence exported to England. The disturbed state of the country during the civil wars, added to the sport-destroying character of the Puritans, seems to have caused the sport to be abandoned in t

e bird, hunger often takes it inland, especially to places where are lakes or large rivers. Mr. Waterton mentions, in his "Essays on Natural History," that the Cormorants often visited the lake at W

thin the domain. "His skill in diving," writes Mr. Waterton, "is most admirable, and his success beyond belief. You may know him at a distance, among a t

aising his body nearly perpendicular, down he plunges into the deep, and, after staying there a considerable time, he is sure to bring up a fish,

ards from its dismal sepulchre, struggling violently to escape. The cormorant swallows it again, and up again it comes, and shows its tail a foot or more out of its destroyer's mout

ke the heron and other aquatic birds, to bring its prey ashore in order to swallow it, but can eat fish in the water as well as catch them. It always seizes the fish crosswise, and is therefore obliged to turn it before it can swallow the prey with the head downwards. Sometimes it contrives to turn the fish while still under water, but, if

food to such an extent that it becomes almost insensible during the process of digestion

and other appurtenances. Mr. Waterton mentions that when he descended the Raincliff, a precipice some four hundred feet in height, he saw numbers of the nests and eggs

a greenish white on the outside, and green on the inside. When found in the nest, they are covered with a sort of chalky crust, so that the true colour is not perceptible until the crust

entioned in the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society," that upon an island in the midst of a large lake t

Cormorant is indeed almost impossible, but the young birds may be rendered edible by taking them as soon as killed, sk

icuous bird, and therefore likely to be selected by name by the ancient lawgiver. And although its flesh is not very agreeable, it can be eaten; and, as has been sho

PELI

ebrew word-Fantastic interpretation-Mode of feeding the young-Fables regarding the Pelican-B

owever, are not the first passages in which we meet with the word kaath. The name occurs in the two parallel passages of Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv. among the list of birds which are proscri

the wilderness: I am lik

far from the habitations of man. This is one of the characteristics of the Pelican, which loves not the neighb

it has made. Mr. Tristram well suggests that the metaphor of the Psalmist may allude to the habit common to the Pelican and its kin, o

ften grotesque, attitudes in which the

PELI

can in the wilder

een described. In another it is walking, or rather staggering, along, with its head on one side, and its beak so closed that hardly a vestige of its enormous pouch can be seen. Another sketch shows the same bird as it appear

sunk so far among the feathers of the back and shoulders that only a portion of the head itself can be seen, while the long beak is

us one. It is taken from a verb signifying "to vomit,"

rejected their shells, just as the owl and the hawk reject the bones, fur, and feathers of their prey. They thought that the Pelican was a bird of a hot temperament,

are faulty, and that the Pelican lives essentially on fish, and not on molluscs, the derivation of the word is really

k is so modified that it can form, when distended, an enormous pouch, capable of holding a great quantity of fish, though, as long as it is not wanted, the pouch is so contracted into longitudinal folds as to be sc

only with the pouch which has been just mentioned, but with long, wide, and very powerful wings, often measuring from twelve to thirteen feet from tip to tip. No one, on looking at a Pelica

t needs no pouch, and has none. Neither does it require the great expanse of wing which is needful for the Pelican, that has to carry such a weight of fish through the air. Accordingly, the wings, though strong enough to enable the

the Pelican, the hook is of a bright scarlet colour, looking, when the bird presses the beak against the white feathers of the breast, like a large drop of blood. Hence arose the curious legend respecting the Pelican, which represented it as

the animals with which they were familiarly acquainted, the old writers were curiously full, exact, and precise in their details. But as soon as they came to any creature of whose mode of life they were entirely or partially ignorant, they allowed their

be even mentioned, but there is one which deserves notic

hat it was in the habit of flying far inland, either for the purpose of digesting its food or nourishing its young. Knowing that the Pelican is in the habit of choosing solitary spots i

being the case, the nurture of the Pelican's young is evidently a difficult question. Being aquatic birds, the young must needs require water for drink and bathing, as well as f

n the parent birds were said to use as a sort of store-pond, bringing home supplies of fish and water in their pouches, and pouring them into the pond. The wild beasts who live

the ground, and is formed in a most inartificial manner of reeds and grass, the general mass of the nest being made of the reeds, and the lining being formed of g

f. They often flew so near us that they flapped their wings in our faces, and, though we fired our pieces repeatedly, we were not able to frighten them." When the well-known naturalist Sonnerat tried to drive

is exceedingly light. Beside this, the whole cellular system of the bird is honeycombed with air-cells, so that the bulk of the

he Pelican, just as the bald-headed eagle of America robs the osprey. Knowing instinctively that when a Pelican is flying inland slowly and heavily and with a distended pouch it is ca

er, after the manner of the cormorant, it contents itself with scooping up in its beak the fishes which come to the surface of the water. The very buoyancy of its body would prevent it from diving as does the cormorant, and, although it often plunges into the water so fairly as to be for a moment submerged, it almost immediately rises, and pursues its course on the surface of the w

kaath has been wrongly translated, occurs in Isa. xxxiv. 10, 11: "From generatio

s it; the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall st

ams are to be turned into pitch, and the dust into brimstone; thorns are to come up in the palaces, and nettles and brambles in the fortresses, and the land is to

elt carelessly, that said in her heart, I am, and there is no more beside me." In chap. ii. ver. 13, 14, the prophet writes as follows

orant [Pelican] and bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels of it, their voices shall sing

rd kaath as Pelican. For a further explanation of them

me circumstances a thoroughly social bird, it is yet fond of retiring to the most solitary spots in order to consume at peace the prey that it has captu

and the upper part of the beak bluish grey, with a red line running across the middle, and a bright red hook at the tip. This plumage belongs only to the adult bird, that of the young being ashen grey, and four or five years are required before the bird puts on its full beauty. There is no

TIL

TORT

ortoise-Its slow movements-Hibernation dependent on temperature-The "Water-Tortoises-Their food and voracity-Their eggs-Their odour te

the "creeping things" of the earth, without troubling themselves about zoological accuracy, and that by them a lizard, a centipede, and a caterpillar would have been alike classed as belonging to the "creeping things." For example, we learn in Deut. xiv. 19 that "every creeping thing that flieth" is unclean. On referring

kind, and the bald locust after his kind, and the bee

things which have four feet sha

red to that portion of the work which treats of entomology; and it is sufficient to ob

es, millepedes, and very probably the caterpillars, are ranked. "Whatsoever hath more feet among

h any creeping thing that creepeth, neither shall ye make you

nder the name of creeping things: "0 Lord, how manifold are Thy work

creep and that do not swim with fins, and that under this term are first comprised the marine turtles, and perhaps snakes. Indeed, from verses 10 and 11 of Levit. xi. it is almost certain that marine and aquati

u; ye shall not eat of their flesh, but ye

the whole of the molluscs, an

ed by having a bony skeleton, breathing by means of lungs and not of gills, having a heart with two auricles and one ventricle, and the skin being covered with

sion as "tortoise." The word is Tzab, and is rendered in the Hebrew Bible as "lizard," but with the mark of doub

BB AND

g things that creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the

e been used by the Israelites as food, had it not been prohibited by law. At the present day it is cooked and ea

n a large yard almost covered with eggs laid by Tortoises and abandoned. The white or albumen of the egg is so stiff and gelatinous that to empty one of them without breaking the shell is a difficult task, and the yolk is very dark, an

they carry it high in the air and drop it on the ground so as to break the shell to pieces, should the reptile fall on a stone or rock. If, as is

nything that comes between them like a pair of shears. Leaves that are pulpy and crisp are bitten through at once, but those that are thin, tough, and fibrous are rather tor

ery slow in some things and astonishingly quick in others. Some of the lizards, for example, will at one time remain motionless for many hours together, or creep about with a slow and snail-like progress, while at others they dart from spot

ating in the same deliberate style which characterises all its movements, and occasionally rest

llowing spring awakes it once more to active life. The depth of its burrow depends on the severit

l species, measuring about six inches in length. It belongs to the large family of the Terrapins, several of which are

ature these yellow streaks fade away gradually, and at last become nearly black. The skin of the head is thin, but very hard. In general appearance it is not unlike the chicken To

teresting animals than they at first promised to be. They were active, swimming with

trongly reminded me of the mole when engaged on a piece of meat or the body of a bird or mouse. The Tortoise would plant its fore-paws firmly

-edged jaws, and tear away the piece, leaving the fish to die. It is rather remarkable that the Lepidosiren, or mud-fish of the Gambia, destroys fish in a pre

r bank of the pond in which it lives. Its eggs are white, and hard-shelled, but are more oval than those of the land Tortoise, and both ends are nearly alike. In fac

animals. The monkey tribe have the strongest objection to these aquatic Tortoises. I once held one of them towards a very tame chimpanzee, much to his discomfiture. He muttered

aspian Emys, and having the same power of frightening horses. In "Land and Water" for February 22d, 1869, there is an account of an adventure with one of those Tortoises, call

ter turtle (Pelamedusa subrufa). Carts have been smashed to fragments, riders thrown, and th

k. I had jumped off for a shot at some francolins near a knill, or water-hole, and, after picking up my birds, was coming round the knill to windward of the horses. In my path scramble

went over the Veldt, leaving me in mortal fear that the yawning 'aard-vark' holes (Orycteropus capensis) would break their necks. My own horse, which I had hitched to a bush, tore away his bridle, and with the ends streaming in the wind and the stirrups clashing about him, sped off home at full gallop, and w

an scramble, and on which they will sit for hours so motionless that at a little distance they can scarcely be distinguished from the stone on which they rest. They sho

Whenever the owner of a vineyard sees a black cloud approaching, all he has to do is, to take one of these Tortoises, lay it on its back, and carry it round the vineyard. He must then go i

n this place, were it not for their sillinesse, that by knowing them men might learn the weaknesse of human wisdom when it erreth from the fountain of all sc

DH

imal, which may probably be

ance that the Jews might be supposed to desire it as food; but it often happens that, as is the case with the turtle

though not to the extent that distinguishes the chameleon. The chief peculiarity of this lizard consists in its tail, which is covered with a series of whorls or circles of long, sharply-pointed, hard-edged scales. The

For this purpose, when it had selected an ox, it jumped on its back, and by the pricking of its sharp claws drove the animal to gallop in hope of ridding himself of his tormentor. In order to guide him in the direction of its home, it made use of its tail, lashing t

h bad in drawing and rude in execution, is yet so bold and truthful

e summer time they have the full enjoyment of the hot sunbeams, in which they delight, and which seem to rouse these cold-blooded creatures to action, while they deprive the higher animals of all spir

ather bloodthirsty reptile, and will kill and devour birds as large as the domestic fowl. U

e Tzab of the Old Testament, the resemblance betwe

THAN OR C

wo legends respecting its presence there-Mode of taking prey-Cunning of the Crocodile-The baboons and the Crocodile-Speed of the reptile-Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their enemies-Curious story of the ichneumon and ibis-

ying a reptile inhabiting the rivers. As in the most important of these passages the Crocodile is evidently signified, we will accept that renderi

on of the terrible reptile. As the translation of the Jewish Bible differs in some points from that of the Au

with a hook, or his tongue with

to his nose, or bore his

ations unto thee? will he

with thee? wilt thou take

s with a bird, or wilt tho

banquet of him? shall they

n with barbed irons, or

him, thou wilt no mor

in vain; shall not one be ca

re stir him up; who then i

should repay him? whatsoever i

ts, nor of the matter of his pow

his garment? who would ente

of his face? his teeth a

s are his pride, shut up to

nother that no air c

ther, they stick together t

hine, and his eyes are like th

eth smoke, as out of a

ive coals, and a flame

strength, and befor

together, they are firm in themselve

mighty are afraid; by reason of

at him cannot hold: the spea

as straw, and cop

flee: sling-stones are tu

tubble; he laugheth at

p points of potsherd; he speak

like a pot; he maketh the

e after him; one would th

not his like, who i

ings; he is a king over a

been personally acquainted with both the Crocodile and the hippopotamus. In both descriptions there are a few exaggerations, or rather, poetical licences. For example, the bones of the hippopotamus are said to be iron and copper, and th

ile and its kin. There are several species of Crocodile in different parts of the world, ten species at least being known to science. Some i

itself through the water by means of its tail, it can also paddle itself gently along by means of its feet. The teeth are all made for snatching and tearing, but not for masticating, the Crocod

rocodiles mostly seize their prey in their open jaws and hold it under water until devoured, it is evident that without such a structure as has been described the Crocodile would be as likely to drown itself as its prey. But the throat-valve enables it to keep its m

case with most reptiles, is able to exist for a considerable time without breathing, it only needs to protrude its nostrils for a few moments, and can then sink entirely beneath the water. In this way the reptile is able to conceal itself in case it sho

ose who dwell about Thebes and Lake M?ris, consider them to be very sacred; and they each of them train up a Crocodile, which is taught to be quite tame; and they put crystal and gold ear-rings into th

the city of Elephantine eat them

state, the more is this feeling developed. By this tendency his worship is regulated, and it will be found that when man is sufficiently advanced to be capable of worship at all, his reverence is inva

idered the Crocodile a type of divinity because it had no tongue, and was therefore an emblem of divine power, which requires no tongue wherewith to speak. "For by a mute and sile

hat divine honours are paid to the Crocodile because the time of laying the eggs and hatching the young foreshows the annual rising of the Nile, on which depends the prosperity of the whole co

rsonally acquainted with the Crocodile, it is thought by many commentators that the writer must have been

Nile by the encroachments of man. It has long been said that even at the present day the Crocodile exists in Palestine in the river which is called "Nhar Zurka," which flows from Samaria through the plains of Sharon. Severa

presence of Crocodiles in this river. Many ages ago there dwelt upon the bank of the river an old man and

s living and neglect, while the younger brother had greatly increased his flocks and herds, and had become a wealthy man. The elder, being jealous of his brothers prosperity, sought in his mind how t

een accustomed to do, descended to the water to wash, when the Cr

codile, brought some of the young from the Nile and established them in the river, which thenceforward bore the name of Nhar Zurka, or the Crocodile River. The rea

beneath the surface of the water, dives rapidly, rises unexpectedly beneath the unsuspecting victim, seizes it with a sudden snap of its huge jaws, and drags it beneath the water. Should the intended prey be too far from the water to be reached by the mouth, or so larg

THE LEVIATHAN

h barbed irons? or his head w

ible branches that overhang the stream, and when, by their weight, the branch bends downwards, they dip their beaks in the water. The Crocodile sees afar off a branch thus loaded, swims

by first showing itself, then swimming slowly away to a considerable distance, so as to make its intended victim think that danger is over, and then returning under water. It is by means of this man?uvre that it captures the little birds. It first makes a dash at them, open-mouthed, causing them to take to flight in terror. It then sails slow

of women had been filling their "gerbas" (water-skins), when one of them was suddenly attacked by a large Crocodile. She sprang back, and the reptile, mistaking

, on gerbas inflated with air, when one of them felt himself seized by the leg by a Crocodile, which tried to drag him under water. He, however, retained his hold on the skin, and his companions also grasped his arms and hair with one hand, while with the other they str

laces; but the baboons are generally more than a match for the Crocodile in point of cunning and

heir drinking hour. I watched a large Crocodile creep slily out of the water and lie in waiting among the rock

le height overhung the river; from this post they had a bird's eye view, and reconnoitred before one of the numerous party descended to drink. The sharp eyes o

orus, while the large old males bellowed defiance, and descended to the lowest branches within eight or ten feet of the Crocodile. It was of no use-the pretender never stirred, and I watched it until dark. It remained still

principal food consists of fish, which it can chase in the water. The great speed at which the Crocodile darts through the water is not owing to its webbed feet, but to its powerful tail, which

ntagonists, the Crocodile can turn but very slowly, so that, although it can scramble along at a much faster pace than its appearance indicates, there is no great difficulty in escaping, provided that the sweep of its

ly together that the sharpest spear can seldom find its way through them, and even the rifle ball glances off, if it strikes them ob

ller than the Crocodile of the Nile, and this is barely equal in size to an ordinary hen's egg. It is longer in proportion to its width, but the contents of the two eggs would be as nearly as possible of the same bulk. On the exterior it is ver

, were they not destroyed by sundry enemies, the Crocodiles would destroy every living creature in the rivers. Fortunately, the eggs and young have many enemies, chiefly among which is the w

dile tumbleth to and fro, sighing and weeping, now in the depth of water, now on the land, never resting till strength of nature faileth. For the incessant gnawing of the ichneumon so provoketh her to seek her rest in the unrest of every part, herb, element, throws, throbs, rollings, but all in vain, for the enemy within her breat

robability, the older observers, knowing that the ichneumon did really destroy the eggs and young of the Crocodile, only added a little amplification, and made up their minds that it also destroyed the parents. The same writer who has lately been quoted ranks the ibis among the enemies of the Croc

description of the Croco

cunning. At the present time the Arabs of the Nile assert that to catch a Crocodile with a hook is impossible. Mr. Lowth suggested to his boatmen that, if a large hook were baited with meat, a Crocodile might be caught. Yusef eage

ims to seize its prey, and swallows the baited hook instead of the living pig. As soon as it is caught, the hunters draw it on shore, and when it tries to attack them, they throw sand into its eyes so as to blind it. It is remarkable that the Arab

erton's "Wanderings" there is an account of the method employed by the natives in catching the cayman, which is the Crocodile of tropical America. A steel hook was tried and found useless, but

lt no more remember the battle." The same may be said of verse 22, which is thus rendered in the Authorized Version: "In his neck remaineth strength, and sorrow is turned into joy before him." The marginal reading gives

passage, showing that allusion is made to the double rows of teeth in both jaws, those of the upper interlacing into those of the lower. "Who would enter the doubl

urther illustrated by the hieroglyphs, wherein the eye of the Crocodile is employed as the emblem of day-dawn. The impossibility of domes

s with a bird? or wilt tho

ch is penetrated with a strong musky odour, in verse 6: "Shall the comp

mighty tail, and the wake that is left behind it as it urges

the waters, whether marine or reptile, and that a whale or a Crocodile would be equally c

s! in wisdom hast Thou made them a

Mediterranean), "wherein are things creepi

s to some large inhabitant of the Mediterranean, or the Great Sea, as it is called in Scripture, to distinguish it f

e, in Exod. vii. 10, we find the well-known passage which relates the changing of Aaron's rod into a Tannin, or serpent, as the Authorized Version translates it. The Jewish Bible, however, simply renders the word as "huge creature."

a den of dragons [tannin];" and the same image is repeated in x. 22: "Behold, the noise of the bruit is come, and a great commotion out of the north country, to make the cities

was signified by the word tannin, but we obtain a clue to it in Ezek. xxix. 2-5: "Son of man

raoh king of Egypt, the great dragon that lieth in the midst of his rive

rs to stick unto thy scales; and I will bring thee up out of the midst o

thou shalt fall upon the open fields; thou shalt not be brought together nor gathered:

m, Thou art like a young lion of the nations, and thou art as a whale [tannin] in the seas; and tho

ad out my net over thee with a company of many

ty, fierce, and relentless, keen-eyed to espy prey, and swift to devour it. Yet, in spite of all these evil qualities, the Egyptians venerated it, pampered it, hung it with cos

o so. Man could not "put a hook into his nose, or bore his jaws through with a thorn" (Job xli. 2); but the Lord could "put hooks in h

s spoken of under the emblem of the "dragon (tannin) that lieth in the midst of the river." The rod of the future high priest of the Lord was changed into the Crocodile, which was

on are mentioned as having been changed into serpents, the words which are translated as serpents are different. The ro

is not at all likely that the Prophet Jeremiah, his soul torn by the crimes of his country and the calamities which he foresaw, persecuted by his own people, his life endangered by the forebodings that he was compelled to utter, imprisoned, exiled, and at last dying in a strange land, would have been versed in natural history, or would have troubled himself to inquire as to the manner in which the young of

e roof of his mouth for thirst; the young child

TH OR

Lizard-The Cyprius, its appearance and habits-The Glass Snake or Scheltopusic-Translation of the word chomet-Probability that it signifies the Ski

es about the word, but, without going into the question of etymology, which is beside the object of this work, it will be sufficient to state tha

g been used for food by the various nations with whom the Israelites were necessarily brought in contact during their captivity, their wanderings,

ed by name, and it will be sufficient in the present case t

used the greatest surprise in an agricultural county by catching and showing to the field-labourers the common Scaly Lizard (Zooto

rd (Lacerta viridis) is exceedingly plentiful, and may be seen darting among the leaves in search of prey, after the erratic manner of Lizards generally, which will remain absol

OR LIZARD O

on, and the lizard, and the snai

ly ludicrous, this beautiful and harmless creature is feared as if it were a venomous serpent, and, to jud

eautifully spotted with orange and scarlet, and may be distinguished, even when the colours have fled after death, by the curiously formed ears, which are strongly toothed in front. It is very plentiful in Pales

ly mistaken for snakes. One of these is the Glass Snake or Scheltopusic (Pseudopus pallasii), which has two very tiny hind legs, but which is altogether so snake-like that it is considered by the natives to be r

tly into some place of safety. When adult, the colour of this Lizard is usually chestnut, profusely mottled with black or deep brown, the edg

wrongly translated, and that by it some species of Lizard is signified. The Jewish Bible follows the Authorized Version, but affixes the ma

e may take as an example the Common Skink (Scincus officinalis), a reptile which derives its specific name from the fact that it was for

oyed for the cure of sunstroke, nettle-rash, sand-blindness, or fever, and both patient and physician have the greatest confidence in its powers. It is said by some European physicians that the flesh of the Skink really does

culty for sinking itself almost instantaneously under the sand, much after the fashion of the shore-crabs of our own country. Indeed, it is even more expeditious than the crab, which occupies some little time in burrowing u

rab, content itself with merely burying its body just below the surface, but con

ssed with several dark bands. Several specimens, however, are spotted instead of banded with brown, while som

several of the Lizards belonging to the Seps fam

isible feet, and which, after the custom of such Lizards, burrow in the sand, are

it Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, and

y legless Lizard, having a very long and snake-like body, and four

its teeth being too small, and its jaws too feeble, to hurt any creature larger than those on which it feeds; but, like the blindwor

t is one of the sand-lovers, bury

. This reptile is also a burrower, but does not sink so deeply into the sand as those Lizards which have just been noticed. Inde

such as that which is employed in the cultivation of rice and other grain, and, as it prefers to follow the course of the ridges rather than leave them, it may be taken without much trouble. It is perfectly harmless, and, although when taken it struggles viole

ON, MONITOR

he Chameleon on the ground-The independent eyes-Its frequent change of colour-Mode of taking prey-Strange notions respecting the Chameleon-The Monitor, or Land

power and strength, but in this passage it signifies the name of some creature which is included in the list of unclean beasts. There is very little doubt that it signif

e Chameleon and the Monitor; and, as the Authorized Version of the Scriptu

pe. It is but a small reptile, and the reader may well ask why a name denoting strength should be given to it. I think that we may find the reason for its name in the extraordina

ormed a bundle that might be rolled along the ground without being broken up. In order to show the extraordinary power of th

AND CH

on, and the lizard, and the snai

ly horizontally, feeling about with the other three feet, as if in search of a convenient resting-place. In this curious attitude it would remain for a conside

ranch to which it is clinging. The feet are most curiously made. They are furnished with five toes, which are arranged like those of parrots and other climbing birds, so as to close upon each other

e, restless disposition of the spider-monkey and the staid, sober demeanour of the Chameleon. The reptile has the power of guiding the tail to any object as correctly as if there were an eye at the e

soon as the reptile wishes to move, the tail is tightened to the branch, and at once coiled round it. There really seems to be almost a separ

ing with the same animal on a branch. It certainly scrambles along at a tolerable rate, but it is absurdly awkward, its legs sprawling widely on either side,

, so that one eye may often be directed forwards, and the other backwards. The eyeballs are covered with a t

has been long known, though there a

r immediately became black, covered with innumerable circular spots of light yellow. The change was so instantaneous that, as it crawled on the scarlet cloth, the colour would alter, and the fore-part of the body

e would become a vivid verdigris green, and, while the spectator was watching it, the legs would become ban

y beautiful, almost exactly resembling in hue and arrangement those of the jaguar. Of all the colours, green seemed generally to predominat

l emotion, but is not dependent on it; and I believe that the animal has no control whatever over its colour. The best proof of this assertion may be found in the

very glutinous secretion. When the Chameleon sees a fly or other insect, it gently protrudes the tongue once or twice, as if taking aim, like a billiard-player with his cue, and then, with a moderately smart stroke, carries off the insect on the glutinous tip

were not personally familiar, those of the Chameleon are not the least curious. "Themselves," writes Topsel, a

r mouths a broad and strong stalk, under protection of which, as under a buckler, they defend themselves against their enemy the serpent, by reason that the stalk is broader than the serpent can

d setteth himself directly over the serpent; then out of his mouth he casteth a thread, like a spider, at the end of which hangeth a drop of

boughs of the tree so grow as the perpendicular line cannot fall directly upon the serpent, then he so corr

wain, that if the crow eat of the cham?leon being slain by him, he dyeth for it except he recover his life by a bay

wk flyeth over a cham?leon, she hath no power to resist the cham?leon, but falleth down before it, yeelding both her life and her limbs to be

eizing a stick crosswise in its mouth, so that when the duck came to seize its prey, th

us niloticus) and the Land Monitor (Psammosaurus scincus), the other repti

tine and Egypt, has perhaps the best claim to be considered as the Koach of Scripture. It is sometimes called the Land Crocodile. It is a carnivorous animal, feeding upon other reptiles and

t that even at the present day it is cooked and eaten by the natives, whereas the cha

re hatched, chasing them through the water, and capturing them by means of its superior swiftness. It may be distinguished from the Land Monitor by the elevated keel which runs along the whole of the s

bability is one of the Geckos. I have therefore introduced into the same illustration on page 535 the commonest species of Gecko found in

PEN

rpents-Haunts of the Serpent-The Cobra, or Asp of Scripture-Meaning of the word Pethen-The deaf Adder that stoppeth her ear-Serpent-charming in the East-Principle on which the charmers work-Sluggishness of the S

Hebrews even with regard to the mammalia, birds, and lizards, we can but

and one being clearly a word which, like our snake or serpent, is a word not restricted to any particular species, but signifying Serpents in general. This word is nachash (pronounced nah-kahsh). It is un

beasts of the field, the wisdom or subtlety of the Serpent having evidently an allegorical and not a categorical signification. We find

shed forward in succession and drawn back again, so as to catch against any inequality of the ground. This power is increased by the structure of the scales. Those of the upper part of the body, which are not used for loc

snake backwards over rough ground; while on a smooth surface, such as glass, the Serpent would be totally unable to proceed. This, however, was not likely to have been studied by the ancient Hebrews, who were among the m

that the poison lay in the forked tongue. See, for example, Ps. lviii. 4: "Their poison is like the poison of a serpent" (nachash). Also Prov. xxiii. 32, in which the sacred w

S, THE ASP AND AD

stoppeth her ear, which will not hearken to the voice

by the way, an adder in

sharpened their tongues like a serpent; adders' poison is under their lips" (Ps. cxl. 3). Also in Job xx. 16, th

question produced real fire from their mouths, but that allusion is made to the power and virulence of their poison, and to the pain caused by

y called the Dart Snake, and which they believed to lie in wait for men and to spring at them from a distance. They thought that this snake hi

nd did sting the Israelites to death in the Wildernesse, until the Brazen Serpent was erected for their cure; among all the Serp

riters do agree, either because they were red like fire; or else because the pain which they inflicted did burn like fire, or rather for both these causes together, which are joyntly and severally found in these Red

s mentioned in Ecclesiastes. "He that diggeth a pit shall fall into it; and whoso breaketh an hedge, a serpent shall bite him" (Eccles. x.

o the ordinary architecture of the East, the walls of common houses, such as those with which a herdman like Amos would be most familiar, being little more than h

of Serpents mentioned in the Bible,

s is the Cobra (Naja haje), a serpent which is

which contain some allusion to its poisonous nature, and one of them

The first occurs in Deut. xxxii. 33: "Their vine is of the vine of Sodom, and of

of dragons, and the cruel

6: "Yet his meat in his bowels is turned, i

d he shall vomit them up again: Go

asps (pethenim): the viper's

s in chap. xi., which is devoted to a prophecy of the spiritual reign of the Messiah, and in which is found that allusion to Himself which our Lord quoted in the Temple (see ver. 2). The

ion as being equally to be dreaded by the traveller. "Thou shalt tread upon the lio

identifying it. The Pethen may be, as far as these passages are concerned, any kind of venomous Serpent. But there is just one allusion to the Pethen which enables

a serpent: they are like the deaf

" The last verse is rendered rather differently in the Jewish Bible: "Which

y professional charmers, there is no doubt that the Egyptian cobra is the Pethen of Scripture. I say the Egyptian cobra, because there is a closely allied species, the cobra of India (Naja tripudians), which very much resembles the Naja haje, and which is also t

tame; it is an unruly evi

rfect impunity is evident enough, and it is also clear that they are able to produce certain effects upon the Serpents by

rton, for example, would take up a rattlesnake in his bare hand without feeling the least uneasy as to the behaviour of his prisoner. He once took twenty-seven rattlesnakes out of a box, carried the

, except when urged by the wants of nature, and will lie coiled up for many hours together when not pressed by hunger. Consequently, when touched, t

uld be sure to inflict its fatal wound before it was seized. If, therefore, Mr. Waterton saw a Serpent which he desired to catch, he would creep very quietly up to it, and with a gentle, slow movement place

ently from the ground, trusting that the reptile would be more inclined to be carried quietly than to summon up sufficient energ

oiled it on his wrist by way of a bracelet, and so took it home, playing many similar tricks with it as he went. After arrival in the house, he produced the viper for the amusement of his brothers and sist

snake-bites. They will coil the cobra round their naked bodies, they will irritate the reptile until it is in a state of fury; they will even allow it to bite them, and yet be none the worse for the wou

f fangs in different stages of development, so that when the one in use is broken or shed in the course of nature, another comes forward and

nt of the manner in which she was formally initiated into the mysteries of snake

Omar [her attendant] sat behind me, and repeated the words as my 'wakeel.' Then the Rifáee twisted a cobra round our joined hands, and requested me to spit on it; he did the same, an

s who are confident of their own powers merely grasp the reptile by the neck, force open its jaws with a piece of stick, and break off the fangs, which are but loosely attached to the jaw. Those who are not so sure of themse

at others do not trouble themselves to remove the fangs of the Serpents, but handle

ruments, of which a sort of flute with a loud shrill sound is the one which is mostly used in the performances. Having ascertained, from slight marks which their pra

having no leverage, and merely wriggles about in fruitless struggles to escape. Having allowed it to exhaust its strength by its efforts, the man lo

eptile finds that escape is impossible, and, as long as it hears the sound of the flute, only raises its head in the air, supporting

ons have thought that all the snakes caught by the professional charmers are tame reptiles, which have been previously placed in the hole by the men, and which have been deprived of their fangs. Careful investigat

tribe. Any of these which are comparatively insensible to the charmers efforts may be considered as "deaf adders." But there has been from time immemorial a belief in the East that some individual Ser

been quoted, alludes in another discourse to this curiou

I. post Pen

aspidis et obturantis aures suas; qu? non exaudit v

inficiat, alteram aurem terr? affigere, alteram vero cauda in eam im

m perducere et lethale venenum peccati, quod in eorum mentibus residet delere contendit; illi contra (d?mone

ay after Pente

sp which even stoppeth her ears-which heedeth not the voice

er deadly venom, layeth one of her ears to the ground and stoppeth the other by thereinto

to health, and to destroy the deadly poison of sin which dwelleth in their minds, they, on the other hand (the devil bringi

a commentary on the Psalms by Richard Rolle (Hermit) of Hampole. It is taken from the MS. in Eton College Library, N

wode for Tai haue na witt to se whider Tai ga for Tai louke Taire eghen and rennes til Te fire Taire wodnes es domested Tat will not be t?ned als of Te snake Tat festes Te tane ere till Te erther and Te toT

ts, that snakes have no external ears, and that therefore the notion

OR SHEPHIPHO

sion to the habits of the serpent which makes identification nearly certain. The passage in question occurs in Gen. xlix. 17, and forms part of the prophecy o

venomous serpent, which is plentiful in Northern Africa, and is found also in Palestine and Syria. It is a very conspicuous reptile, and is easi

a, and as they are exceedingly active, while the Cerastes is slow and sluggish, its only chance of obtaining food is to lie in wait. It will always take advantage of any small dep

ng in the path, and to be liable to the attack of the irritated reptile. Horses are instinctively aware of the presence of the snake, and mostly perceive it in time to avoid its stroke. Its small dimensions, the snake rarely exceeding two feet in length, enable it t

ke, whose bite is so deadly, and whose habits are such a

PER, O

pearance and habits-The Acshub-Adder's poison-The Spuugh-Slange-The Cockatrice, or

collective name, but we are left in much doubt as to the precise species which is intended by it. The first of those passages occurs in Job xx. 16: "The viper's (epheh) tongue shall slay him." The second is found in Isa. xxx. 6: "The burden of the beasts of

the subject fails exactly in the most important point. We are told by Shaw that in Northern Africa there is a small snake, the most poisonous of its tribe, which is called by the name of El-effah, a w

, and scarcely exceeding a foot in length, is a dangerous one, though its bite is not so deadly as that of the cobra or cerastes. It is variable in colour, bu

posed to be the v

gue shall slay h

g countries, and, as it is exceedingly active, is held in some dread by the natives. Th

a further and fuller investigation of the ophiology of Northern Africa may s

ccept this derivation, we must take the word acshub as a synonym for pethen. We have already identified the Pethen with the Naja haje, a snake which has the power of expelling the poison to some distance, when it is out of reach of its enemy. Whether the snake really intends to eject the poison, or whether it is merely flung from the hollow fangs by the force of the

nslated as Adder, and sometimes as Cockatrice. The word is rendered as Adder in Prov. xxiii. 32, where it is said that wine "biteth l

at smote thee is broken: for out of the serpent's (nachash) nest shall come forth a cockatrice (tsepha), and his fruit shall be a fiery flying serpent." The same word occurs again in ch. lix. 5: "They

that it was neither the cobra, which we have identified with the Pethen of Scripture, nor the Cerastes or Horned Snake, which has been shown to be the Shephiphon. Our evidence is therefore only of a nega

ents which are found in Palestine, and which is the more dangerous on account of its nocturnal habits. This snake is one of the Katukas, and is closely allied to the drea

ll, in stead whereof it is covered with a very thick skin, which is able to withstand the greatest force of an easie blow or fall. They say moreover that this Egge is laid only in the summer time, about the beginning of Dog days, being not so long as a Hen's Egge, but round and orbicular. Some

Nature hath this discourse, in the fourth chapter thereof. 'There happened,' saith he, 'within our memory, in the city of Piriz?a, that there were two old Cocks which had laid Egges, and the common people (because of opinion that those Egges would e

male bird. Still, that one of them should occasionally lay an egg is no great matter of wonder, and, as the egg would be naturally deposited in a retired and sheltered spot, such as would be the favoured haunts of the wa

look, "because the beams of the Cockatrice's eyes do corrupt the visible spirit of a man, which visible spirit corru

he fiery heat of its venom, which was exhaled not only from its mouth, but its sides. For the old writers, whose statements are here summarized, contrived to jumble together a number of miscellaneous facts in natural history, and so to produce a most extraordinary series of legends. We have al

the earth: it burneth up the grasse whereupon it goeth or creepeth, and the fowls of the air fall down dead when they come near his den or lodging. Sometimes he bitet

onally mentioned formed the staple of zoological knowledge, and an untravelled Englishman had no possible means of learning the history of foreign animals, except from such books which have been quoted, and which were in those days the standard wor

FR

es of Egypt-The severity of this plague explained-The Frog detestable to

emarkable that in the whole of the canonical books of the Old Testament the w

form of innumerable Frogs. The reader will probably remark, on perusing the consecutive account of these plagues, that th

as had been foretold. Following the divine command, Aaron threw down his rod, which was transformed into a crocodile

esh-water throughout the land being turned into blood, and the fish dying and polluting the venerated river with their putrefying bodies. In Egypt, a partially rai

(Rana es

ring forth frogs abund

unable to return to the contaminated stream wherein they had lived, spread themselves in all directions, so as to

e house, and into thy bed-chamber, and upon thy bed, and into the house of thy servants

d the crops and cattle, and with the simultaneous death of the first-born. But the Egyptians suffered most keenly from the infliction. They were a singularly fastidious people, and abhorred the contact of anything that they held to be unclean. We may well realize, therefore,

nto which they had intruded, so that the Egyptians were obliged to clear their houses of the dead carcases

the Green, or Edible Frog (Rana esculenta), which is so well known for the delicacy of its flesh. This is believed

water can scarcely be seen for the Frogs. Thus the multitudes of the Frogs which invaded the Egyptians was no matter of wonder, the only mira

fore would not be able to pass over land. But, even granting that to be the case, it does not follow that the adult Frogs were not numerous enough to pr

nd having three black stripes upon it. The under parts are yellowish. At night it keeps up a continued and very loud croaking,

prophet." With the exception of this passage, which is a purely symbolical one, there is no mention of Frogs in the New Testament. It is rather remarkable that the Toad, which might be thoug

SH

SH

shes-The Fish broiled on the coals-Clean and unclean Fishes-The scientific writings of Solomon-The Sheat-fish, or Silurus-The Eel and the

d both in the Old and New Testaments, but only in general terms, no one spe

ich the various species are distinguished from each other, we might expect that St. Peter and other of the fisher Apostles would ha

cept, perhaps, by comparative size. But professional fishermen would be sure to distinguish one specie

e miraculous draught of Fishes took place would have mentioned the technical names by which t

ight have learned the particular species of Fish which was thus captured. We ourselves would assuredly have done so. It would not have been thought sufficient mere

required by the one has no place in the mind of the other. The whole of the Scriptural narratives are essentially Or

Israelites, both when captives in Egypt and after their arrival in the Promised Land. Take, for example

find many such categorical statements, there are many passages which allude to professional fishermen,

Take, for example, the well-known miracle of multiplying the loaves and the Fishes, and the scarcely less familiar passage

, Bring of the fish wh

f great fishes, an hundred and fifty and three: and f

d none of the disciples durst ask Him, Wh

taketh bread, and giveth

and St. John, in his account of the multiplication of the loaves and Fishes, does not use the word "fish," but another word which rather

ferent purposes, we know really nothing, the Jews

pake of trees, from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the

arious species. Comparatively young as he was, he had received such a measure of divine inspiration, that "ther

they have not even introduced into the language the names of the various creatures of which he wrote. So, in spite of all his labours, there is not a single word

fins and scales. "These shall ye eat of all that are in the waters: whatsoever ha

rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing

of their flesh, but ye shall have their carcases in abominatio

ted Fishes. The Sheat-fishes inhabit rivers in many parts of the world, and often grow to a very considerable size. They may be at once recognised by their peculiar shape, and by the long, fleshy tentacl

a).? 2. Long-headed Bar

h (Silurus m

cales ... shall be an abomina

at love muddy banks, in which it is fond of burrowing so deeply that, although

eeable in flavour, and is difficult of digestion, being very fat and gelatinous. The swimming-bladder of the Sheat-fish is

n page 566 represents a species which is e

permitted Fish, as, although they have fins, they have no scales, their place being taken by shields varying greatly

hough it has been proved that these Fishes really possess scales as well as fins, and are therefore legall

it is tolerably plentiful. In the days of the old Roman empire, the Mur?na was very highly valued for the table. The wealthier c

lass of clean Fish, and were permitted as food. The figure of the Fish between th

are fond of grubbing in the mud, for the purpose of getting at the worms, grubs, and larv? of aquatic insects that are always to be found in such places

ken with the very simplest kind of net. Indeed, in some places, the fi

were kept, and it is evident, from several passages of Scripture, that the Jews were accustomed to

pools in Heshbon, by the gate of Bath-rabbim." The Hebrew Bible renders the passage in a slightly different manner,

nd. Now among the ruins of Heshbon may still be seen the remains of a large tank, which

is purpose, by a passage which occurs in the prophecy of Isaiah: "The fishers also shall mourn, and all th

ine flax, and they that weave

rposes thereof, all that make sluic

" and the words "living things" for "fish." The Jewish Bible takes an entirely different view of the passage, and renders it as follows: "T

ombed flax and they that weave

l be crushed; all working f

events more consistent than that of the Jewish Bible. In the former, we first find the fishers taking their prey with the hook and line,

THE MEDI

neis remora).? 2. Tun

e (Coryph?n

all that are in the w

ed is only an inferential one. In the prophecy against Pharaoh, king of Egypt, the prophet Ezekiel writes as follows: "I will put hooks in thy jaws, and I will cause the

tors think that the "Fishes" here mentioned are the Cuttles, which, although they are not Fishes at all, but belong to the molluscs, are called Fishes after the loose nomenclature of the He

eloped into a most curious apparatus of adhesion, by means of which it can fasten itself at will

neis remora) is shown in the

ample, the well-known Lump-sucker, or Lump-fish, which has the ventral fins modified into a sucker so powerful that, when one of these fishes has been put into a

ker, by means of which the fish is able to secure itself to a stone, rock, or in

), which furnishes food to the inhabitants of the coasts of this inland sea, and indeed constitutes one of their principal sourc

the silence of the Scriptures concerning its existence shows the utter i

though very wrongly, called the Dolphin, and celebrated, under that name, f

they might, in the first place, witness the magnificent colours of the dying fish, and, in the second place, might be assured that when it was cooked it was perfectly fresh. Even during life, the Cory

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